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We analysed the publications in this field of research and found out that privacy does not seem to be the main focus...."/> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/cover/book/978-3-319-39028-4.jpg"/> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5"/> <meta name="DOI" content="10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5"/> <meta name="dc.description" content="In Smart Grid a customer’s privacy is threatened by the fact that an attacker could deduce personal habits from the detailed consumption data. We analysed the publications in this field of research and found out that privacy does not seem to be the main focus...."/> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5.pdf"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5"/> <meta name="citation_abstract_html_url" content="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5"/> <meta name="citation_inbook_title" content="Open Problems in Network Security"/> <meta name="citation_title" content="Intrusion Detection in the Smart Grid Based on an Analogue Technique"/> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2016"/> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="56"/> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="67"/> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"/> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="1611-3349"/> <meta name="citation_isbn" content="978-3-319-39028-4"/> <meta name="citation_conference_series_id" content="springer/inetsec"/> <meta name="citation_conference_title" content="International Workshop on Open Problems in Network Security "/> <meta name="citation_conference_abbrev" content="iNetSec"/> <meta name="size" content="85336"/> <meta name="description" content="In Smart Grid a customer’s privacy is threatened by the fact that an attacker could deduce personal habits from the detailed consumption data. We analysed the publications in this field of research and found out that privacy does not seem to be the main focus...."/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Richthammer, Hartmut"/> <meta name="citation_author_email" content="Hartmut.Richthammer@ur.de"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="University of Regensburg"/> <meta name="citation_author" content="Reif, Sebastian"/> <meta name="citation_author_email" content="Sebastian.Reif@ur.de"/> <meta name="citation_author_institution" content="University of Regensburg"/> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Springer, Cham"/> <meta name="citation_springer_api_url" content="http://api.springer.com/xmldata/jats?q=doi:10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5&api_key="/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5"/> <meta property="og:type" content="Paper"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="SpringerLink"/> <meta property="og:title" content="Intrusion Detection in the Smart Grid Based on an Analogue Technique"/> <meta property="og:description" content="In Smart Grid a customer&#8217;s privacy is threatened by the fact that an attacker could deduce personal habits from the detailed consumption data. 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src="https://media.springernature.com/w72/springer-static/cover-hires/book/978-3-319-39028-4?as=webp" srcset="https://media.springernature.com/w144/springer-static/cover-hires/book/978-3-319-39028-4?as=webp 2x" alt=""> </picture> <span class="app-article-masthead__journal-title ">Open Problems in Network Security</span> </a> <span class="app-article-masthead__conference-info">(iNetSec 2015) </span> </div> </div> </div></section></div> <div class="c-article-main u-container u-mt-24 u-mb-32 l-with-sidebar" id="main-content" data-component="article-container"> <main class="js-main-column u-serif c-chapter-body" data-track-component="chapter"> <div class="c-context-bar u-hide" data-test="context-bar" data-context-bar aria-hidden="true"> <div class="c-context-bar__container u-container" data-track-context="sticky banner"> <div class="c-context-bar__title"> Intrusion Detection in the Smart Grid Based on an Analogue Technique </div> </div> </div> <article lang="en"> <div class="c-article-header"> <header> <div class="app-overview-section"> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Hartmut-Richthammer" data-author-popup="auth-Hartmut-Richthammer">Hartmut Richthammer</a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff15">15</a></sup> & </li><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Sebastian-Reif" data-author-popup="auth-Sebastian-Reif" data-corresp-id="c1">Sebastian Reif<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff15">15</a></sup> </li></ul> <div class="app-overview-section__separator app-overview-section__book-series"> <div class="app-book-series-listing"> <div> <svg class="app-book-series-listing__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use href="#icon-eds-i-book-series-medium"></use></svg> </div> <div> <p data-test="series-link"> <span class="app-book-series-listing__description">Part of the book series:</span> <a href="https://www.springer.com/series/558" data-track="click" data-track-action="open book series" data-track-label="link">Lecture Notes in Computer Science</a> ((LNSC,volume 9591)) </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="app-book-series-listing app-overview-section__conf-series"> <div> <svg class="app-book-series-listing__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"><use href="#icon-eds-i-conference-series-medium"></use></svg> </div> <div> <p class="app-book-series-listing__description" data-test="conference-series-link">Included in the following conference series:</p> <ul class="app-book-series-listing__list" data-component="data-book-show-more"> <li class="app-book-series-listing__item"><a href="https://link.springer.com/conference/inetsec" data-test="conference-series-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="open conference" data-track-label="link">International Workshop on Open Problems in Network Security </a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div class="app-overview-section__separator" data-test="article-metrics"> <div id="altmetric-container"> <ul class="app-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset" data-test="article-metrics"> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item" data-test="access-count"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-accesses-medium"></use> </svg>4530 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> </ul></div> </div> </div> </header> </div> <div data-article-body="true" data-track-component="chapter body" class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 id="Abs1" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item"><span class="c-article-section__title-number"> </span>Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>In Smart Grid a customer’s privacy is threatened by the fact that an attacker could deduce personal habits from the detailed consumption data. We analysed the publications in this field of research and found out that privacy does not seem to be the main focus. To verify this guess, we analysed it with the technique of directed graphs. This indicates that privacy isn’t yet sufficiently investigated in the Smart Grid context. Hence we suggest a decentralised IDS based on NILM technology to protect customer’s privacy. Thereby we would like to initiate a discussion about this idea.</p></div></div></section><div class="c-article-section__content c-article-section__content--separator"><p>S. Reif—The research leading to these results was supported by “Bavarian State Ministry of Education, Science and the Arts” as part of the FORSEC research association (<a href="http://www.bayforsec.de/">http://www.bayforsec.de/</a>).</p></div> <div data-test="cobranding-download"> <div class="note test-pdf-link" id="cobranding-and-download-availability-text"> <div class="c-article-access-provider" data-component="provided-by-box"> <p class="c-article-access-provider__text c-article-access-provider__text--chapter"> You have full access to this open access chapter, <a href="/content/pdf/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5.pdf?pdf=inline%20link" class="c-pdf-download__link" id="js-body-chapter-download" style="display: inline; padding:0px!important;" target="_blank" rel="noopener" data-track="content_download" data-track-context="article body" data-track-type="conference paper PDF download" data-track-action="Pdf download" data-track-label="inline link" download>Download conference paper PDF</a> <svg width="24" height="24" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="c-download-pdf-icon-large"> <use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use> </svg> </p> </div> </div> </div> <section aria-labelledby="inline-recommendations" data-title="Inline Recommendations" class="c-article-recommendations" data-track-component="inline-recommendations"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-title" id="inline-recommendations">Similar content being viewed by others</h3> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-list__item"> <article class="c-article-recommendations-card" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/ScholarlyArticle"> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__img"><img src="https://media.springernature.com/w92h120/springer-static/cover-hires/book/978-981-99-5091-1?as=webp" loading="lazy" alt=""></div> <div class="c-article-recommendations-card__main"> <h3 class="c-article-recommendations-card__heading" itemprop="name headline"> <a class="c-article-recommendations-card__link" itemprop="url" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-99-5091-1_5?fromPaywallRec=false" data-track="select_recommendations_1" data-track-context="inline recommendations" data-track-action="click recommendations inline - 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3" data-track-label="10.1007/978-3-030-71115-3_7">ENERMONGRID: Intelligent Energy Monitoring, Visualization and Fraud Detection for Smart Grids </a> </h3> <div class="c-article-meta-recommendations" data-test="recommendation-info"> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__item-type">Chapter</span> <span class="c-article-meta-recommendations__date">© 2021</span> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </section> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; window.dataLayer.push({ recommendations: { recommender: 'semantic', model: 'specter', policy_id: 'NA', timestamp: 1743775274, embedded_user: 'null' } }); </script> <div class="main-content"> <h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="keywords">Keywords</h2><ul class="c-article-subject-list"><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Smart%20grid&facet-discipline="Computer%20Science"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Smart grid</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Smart%20meter&facet-discipline="Computer%20Science"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Smart meter</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Intrusion%20detection%20system&facet-discipline="Computer%20Science"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Intrusion detection system</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=IDS&facet-discipline="Computer%20Science"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">IDS</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=NILM&facet-discipline="Computer%20Science"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">NILM</a></span></li><li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"><span><a href="/search?query=Privacy&facet-discipline="Computer%20Science"" data-track="click" data-track-action="view keyword" data-track-label="link">Privacy</a></span></li></ul> <section data-title="Introduction"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec1-section"><h2 id="Sec1" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">1 </span>Introduction</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec1-content"><p>During the last years power supply was subject to fundamental changes. In the course of the energy revolution the percentage of fossil fuels and nuclear power decreases and in return the percentage of renewable energies, such as wind and sun, increases. Therefore the energy production is more and more decentralized and the availability changes from static to dynamic. In this context not only a few actors of the infrastructure, e.g. the energy service provider, produce power but also private customers are able to act as producers by installing their own power supplies, e.g. photovoltaics, at their houses. It is also possible to store the power, e.g. in accumulators of electric cars. The former consumer acts as a producer and energy provider as well. We call him <i>Prosumer</i>.</p><p>To face these new challenges the SG infrastructure concept was established. Due to the increased number of producers it has to be ensured, that the network is not damaged by big deviations of power. In this context detailed consumption data of the <i>Prosumers</i> are recorded and sent by the smart meters to the energy service provider. This recorded data threatens the privacy of the <i>Prosumer</i>. The SG infrastructure is additionally threatened by external attackers [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 16" title="Khurana, H., Hadley, M., Ning, L., Frincke, D.A.: Smart-grid security issues. Secur. Priv. IEEE 8(1), 81–85 (2010)" href="#ref-CR16" id="ref-link-section-d994744e818">16</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 19" title="Lu, Z., Lu, X., Wang, W., Wang, C.: Review and evaluation of security threats on the communication networks in the smart grid. In: Military Communications Conference, MILCOM 2010, pp. 1830–1835, October 2010" href="#ref-CR19" id="ref-link-section-d994744e821">19</a>].</p><p>It is eligible, to detect these attacks by suitable IDS considering <i>Prosumer</i>’s privacy. In this paper a new approach is introduced.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="Related Work"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec2-section"><h2 id="Sec2" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">2 </span>Related Work</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec2-content"><p>We investigated the number of available publications searched by Key Word and Key Word combinations. The queries were based on the IEEE Xplore<sup>®</sup> Digital Library. We think that this database is a quite important one for the research on SG. Nevertheless this restriction is a drawback of our work. In future analyses the search should be extended to other libraries such as Springer or Google Scholar.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec3"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">2.1 </span>Quantitative Analysis</h3><p>The results gives us a first impression about the focus of actual research on SG and are illustrated in Tables <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="#Tab1">1</a> and <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="#Tab2">2</a>.</p><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-1"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab1" data-test="table-caption">Table 1. Hits per Key Word (IEEE Xplore<sup>®</sup> digital library).</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5/tables/1" aria-label="Full size table 1"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-table" data-test="inline-table" data-container-section="table" id="table-2"><figure><figcaption class="c-article-table__figcaption"><b id="Tab2" data-test="table-caption">Table 2. Hits per Key Word combinations (IEEE Xplore<sup>®</sup> digital library).</b></figcaption><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="table-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="view table" data-track-label="button" rel="nofollow" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5/tables/2" aria-label="Full size table 2"><span>Full size table</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>The tables show that Smart Grid and privacy with over 10, 000 and 20, 000 hits respectively are important fields of research besides security.</p><p>To find interconnections between different Key Words, we searched for combinations of these terms, Table <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="table anchor" href="#Tab2">2</a> shows hits on such combinations.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-1" data-title="Fig. 1."><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig1" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 1.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5/figures/1" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-319-39028-4_5/MediaObjects/416270_1_En_5_Fig1_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig1" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-319-39028-4_5/MediaObjects/416270_1_En_5_Fig1_HTML.gif" alt="figure 1" loading="lazy"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-1-desc"><p>Closeness Centrality of selected survey papers</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="chapter-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5/figures/1" data-track-dest="link:Figure1 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 1" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>It could be concluded that the research on Smart Grid is mainly focused on security, but privacy is discussed less. Nonetheless protection of privacy in the context of SG is well analysed by many publications [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 8" title="Efthymiou, C., Kalogridis, G.: Smart grid privacy via anonymization of smart metering data. In: 2010 First IEEE International Conference on Smart Grid Communications (SmartGridComm), pp. 238–243. IEEE (2010)" href="#ref-CR8" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1230">8</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 10" title="Garcia, F.D., Jacobs, B.: Privacy-friendly energy-metering via homomorphic encryption. In: Cuellar, J., Lopez, J., Barthe, G., Pretschner, A. (eds.) STM 2010. LNCS, vol. 6710, pp. 226–238. Springer, Heidelberg (2011)" href="#ref-CR10" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1233">10</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 15" title="Kalogridis, G., Efthymiou, C., Denic, S.Z., Lewis, T., Cepeda, R.: Privacy for smart meters : Towards undetectable appliance load signatures. In: 2010 First IEEE International Conference on Smart Grid Communications (SmartGridComm), pp. 232–237. IEEE (2010)" href="#ref-CR15" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1236">15</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 18" title="LeMay, M., Gross, G., Gunter, C.A., Garg, S.: Unified architecture for large-scale attested metering. In: 40th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, HICSS 2007, pp. 115–124. IEEE (2007)" href="#ref-CR18" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1239">18</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="Molina-Markham, A., Shenoy, P., Fu, K., Cecchet, E., Irwin, D.: Private memoirs of a smart meter. In: Proceedings of the 2nd ACM Workshop on Embedded Sensing Systems for Energy-Efficiency in Building, pp. 61–66. ACM (2010)" href="#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1242">23</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 25" title="Petrlic, R.: A privacy-preserving concept for smart grids. Sicherheit vernetzten Systemen 18, B1–B14 (2010)" href="#ref-CR25" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1246">25</a>], IDS and attack vectors on SG are part of the current research [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Berthier, R., Sanders, W.H., Khurana, H.: Intrusion detection for advanced metering infrastructures: requirements and architectural directions. In: 2010 First IEEE International Conference on Smart Grid Communications (SmartGridComm), pp. 350–355, October 2010" href="#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1249">2</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 3" title="Berthier, R., Sanders, W.H.: Specification-based intrusion detection for advanced metering infrastructures. In: 2011 IEEE 17th Pacific Rim International Symposium on Dependable Computing (PRDC), pp. 184–193. IEEE (2011)" href="#ref-CR3" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1252">3</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 21" title="McLaughlin, S., Holbert, B., Fawaz, A.-Q., Berthier, R., Zonouz, S.: A multi-sensor energy theft detection framework for advanced metering infrastructures. IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun. 31(7), 1319–1330 (2013)" href="#ref-CR21" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1255">21</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 26" title="Salem, M.: Adaptive Real-time Anomaly-based Intrusion Detection using Data Mining and Machine Learning Techniques. Ph.D. thesis, Kassel, Univ., Diss. (2014)" href="#ref-CR26" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1258">26</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Salinas, S., Li, M., Li, P.: Privacy-preserving energy theft detection in smart grids. In: 2012 9th Annual IEEE Communications Society Conference on Sensor, Mesh and Ad Hoc Communications and Networks (SECON), pp. 605–613, June 2012" href="#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1261">27</a>] as well. The combination of the Key Words <i>Smart Grid, Intrusion Detection</i> and <i>Privacy</i> yields just five publications. It seems that especially privacy in connection with Intrusion Detection for the Smart Grid is not considered sufficiently. IDS aggregate and analyse a lot of data [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 6" title="Denning, D.E., Neumann, P.G.: Requirements and model for IDES - a real-time intrusion detection expert system. Document A005, SRI. International, vol. 333 (1985)" href="#ref-CR6" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1271">6</a>] and in addition this data is highly privacy relevant. The consumption data reveals details about the daily routine, consumer behaviour and habits of the residents [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 12" title="Greveler, U., Justus, B., Loehr, D.: Multimedia content identification through smart meter power usage profiles. In: Computers, Privacy and Data Protection (2012)" href="#ref-CR12" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1274">12</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 22" title="Müller, K.: Gewinnung von Verhaltensprofilen am intelligenten Stromzähler. Datenschutz und Datensicherheit-DuD 34(6), 359–364 (2010)" href="#ref-CR22" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1277">22</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 23" title="Molina-Markham, A., Shenoy, P., Fu, K., Cecchet, E., Irwin, D.: Private memoirs of a smart meter. In: Proceedings of the 2nd ACM Workshop on Embedded Sensing Systems for Energy-Efficiency in Building, pp. 61–66. ACM (2010)" href="#ref-CR23" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1280">23</a>]. However it seems that hitherto IDS is primarily used to protect the energy service provider not the Prosumer. Therefore we think that research with regard to the Prosumer’s privacy should be intensified.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec4"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">2.2 </span>Qualitative Analysis by Directed Graphs</h3><p>To measure the impact of single publications we generated a network with directed graphs that shows the interconnections between different papers and their references. Thereby we tried to verify the assumptions we made above. For this purpose the results were processed to more meaningful graphs. We used the “Closeness Centrality” metric, which measures how far a node is away from other ones. A high value means that the publication and their references use lot of third party references. This suggests that they are survey papers and it is confirmed by a close look. These papers are represented by the nodes shown in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="#Fig1">1</a>. The node size visualises the closeness centrality value. The red coloured nodes represent publications that are related to privacy. As you can see, there is just one node of relevance, which is related to the topic privacy. This affirms our assumptions that privacy is not yet sufficiently investigated.</p></div></div></section><section data-title="NILM Based IDS"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec5-section"><h2 id="Sec5" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">3 </span>NILM Based IDS</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec5-content"><p>NILM was first proposed by Hart [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 14" title="Hart, G.W.: Residential energy monitoring and computerized surveillance via utility power flows. Technol. Soc. Mag. IEEE 8(2), 12–16 (1989)" href="#ref-CR14" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1303">14</a>] in the year 1989. The idea behind this concept is to use only one measurement device to gather consumption data of the whole household. It will be described in Sect. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="#Sec8">3.3</a>.</p><p>First we will introduce the infrastructure, the interconnection from a household with the SG itself and the IDS components in detail.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec6"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">3.1 </span>The Smart Meter Intrustion Detection Infrastructure</h3><p>In Sect. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="#Sec2">2</a> we have shown that privacy seems not to be an important part for IDS in the SG. The suggested concepts only analyse network traffic [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 29" title="Valdes, A., Cheung, S.: Intrusion monitoring in process control systems. In: 42nd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, HICSS 2009, pp. 1–7. IEEE (2009)" href="#ref-CR29" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1322">29</a>] and gather information outside the household [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 2" title="Berthier, R., Sanders, W.H., Khurana, H.: Intrusion detection for advanced metering infrastructures: requirements and architectural directions. In: 2010 First IEEE International Conference on Smart Grid Communications (SmartGridComm), pp. 350–355, October 2010" href="#ref-CR2" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1325">2</a>]. Energy fraud and malicious devices which produce unusual consumption of energy are not detected. Salinas et al. [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 27" title="Salinas, S., Li, M., Li, P.: Privacy-preserving energy theft detection in smart grids. In: 2012 9th Annual IEEE Communications Society Conference on Sensor, Mesh and Ad Hoc Communications and Networks (SECON), pp. 605–613, June 2012" href="#ref-CR27" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1328">27</a>] introduced an interesting concept for privacy-preserving energy theft detection, where the neighbourhood is involved in the fraud detection. But this concept does not consider the attacker inside a household.</p><p>Our approach is a privacy friendly inhouse IDS and was inspired by this idea. We want to reach this goal by developing a decentralized IDS where all relevant energy consumption data is aggregated by a device inside the household. This device should act as central AMS, illustrated in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="#Fig2">2</a>. Every available appliance inside a household is therefore known by the AMS, which is also the SM. Thus it can be avoided that sensitive data is permanently transferred to the energy service provider. The <i>Prosumers</i> produces and consumes energy which is depicted as a bidirectional energy flow in the figure. The energy flows through the SM and also bidirectional into the grid. Only the energy flow from the ESP is unidirectional. The data communication between every party is always bidirectional and should be encrypted in accord with the BSI [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 4" title="BSI. BSI Richtlinien SmartGrid BSI TR-03109-2 - Smart Meter Gateway Sicherheitsmodul Use Cases, March 2013" href="#ref-CR4" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1340">4</a>].</p><p>All appliances consume energy and hence are directly connected with the SM over the powerline. Which leads to that the SM knows the energy consumption behaviour of the household. Inside the SM the following components should be included as it is recommended by the BSI:</p><ul class="u-list-style-dash"> <li> <p>Some kind of user interaction component, where the consumer can monitor his energy consumpiton, ideally as historical graph.</p> </li> <li> <p>A TPM which implements a random generator and securely handles the private keys for decryption and signing.</p> </li> <li> <p>A communication module which handles the dataflow between the parties.</p> </li> </ul><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-2" data-title="Fig. 2."><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig2" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 2.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5/figures/2" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-319-39028-4_5/MediaObjects/416270_1_En_5_Fig2_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig2" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-319-39028-4_5/MediaObjects/416270_1_En_5_Fig2_HTML.gif" alt="figure 2" loading="lazy"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-2-desc"><p>Exemplary depiction of a Smart Meter Intrustion Detection Infrastructure. (Some parts of the graphic are from Marekich (Wikipedia) under the CC BY-SA 3.0 licence)</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="chapter-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5/figures/2" data-track-dest="link:Figure2 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 2" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Our approach is to include the IDS and a response mechanism inside the SM. The user now has the possibility to get Informations about security incidents and react on them. How the data is collected and processed will be described in Sect. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="#Sec8">3.3</a>. The response system could be an LCD panel, a SMS or E-Mail sender, a web interface or an API where a third party device (e.g. Smartphone App) can connect to.</p><p>To detect, categorize and manage all energy consuming household appliances, an analogue technique like NILM could be used. Every device is identified by its individual energy consumption signature. The idea is, when every appliance can be identified inside a household and the normal energy consumption behaviour of a device or the whole system is known, an irregular acting device can be identified. For example a possible attack on an SG could be that high energy consuming devices (e.g. a air conditioning) in a specific region are compromised by a virus. What if all these devices are activated at the same time? A sharply rising energy consumption in this region would be the consequence. If we have a large region and the peak is high enough or the consumption goes over a long period of time, the grid structure could be overstressed and damaged. The data link communication between the malicious device and an attacker can be disguised in the normal internet traffic or over a encrypted communication. But an AMS with an integrated IDS could detect such an irregular energy consumption and counteract it, because an attacker can not hide the irregular energy consumption from the SM.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-3" data-title="Fig. 3."><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig3" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 3.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5/figures/3" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-319-39028-4_5/MediaObjects/416270_1_En_5_Fig3_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig3" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-319-39028-4_5/MediaObjects/416270_1_En_5_Fig3_HTML.gif" alt="figure 3" loading="lazy"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-3-desc"><p>Intrusion detection system information flow diagram [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 7" title="Dorosz, P., Kazienko, P.: Systemy wykrywania intruzw. VI Krajowa Konferencja (2002)" href="#ref-CR7" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1405">7</a>].</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="chapter-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5/figures/3" data-track-dest="link:Figure3 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 3" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-4" data-title="Fig. 4."><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig4" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 4.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5/figures/4" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-319-39028-4_5/MediaObjects/416270_1_En_5_Fig4_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig4" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-319-39028-4_5/MediaObjects/416270_1_En_5_Fig4_HTML.gif" alt="figure 4" loading="lazy"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-4-desc"><p>Intrusion detection system module details [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 5" title="Debar, H., Dacier, M., Wespi, A.: Towards a taxonomy of intrusion-detection systems. Comput. Netw. 31(8), 805–822 (1999)" href="#ref-CR5" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1427">5</a>]</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="chapter-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5/figures/4" data-track-dest="link:Figure4 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 4" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec7"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">3.2 </span>IDS Structure</h3><p>Figure <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="#Fig3">3</a> shows examplary the information flow for the IDS structure. A system training phase is nessesary before the system can be deployed. A preparation module with a initial dataset trains the IDS. When this phase is finished, the protected system is monitored by an <i>IDS Module</i> which is inside the SM. For every incident the respone and notification module is triggered. The user can now interact with the system and give response in an appropriate manner. To deal with <i>false positives</i> or <i>false negatives</i> a feedback channel to the preparation module could be used to adjust the IDS. A detailed structure of the <i>IDS Module</i> itself is shown in Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="#Fig4">4</a>. The <i>IDS Knowledge Database</i> contains the normal behaviour pattern of the household and the appliances. It provides the <i>Sensor</i> with information about the normal and abnormal behaviour. A second database <i>(IDS Configuration Database)</i> could contain IDS specific configuration information (e.g. in wich time frame the system should be active). The <i>Attack Response Module</i> was already described.</p><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-5" data-title="Fig. 5."><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig5" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 5.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5/figures/5" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-319-39028-4_5/MediaObjects/416270_1_En_5_Fig5_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig5" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-319-39028-4_5/MediaObjects/416270_1_En_5_Fig5_HTML.gif" alt="figure 5" loading="lazy"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-5-desc"><p>Intrusion detection system policies [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 20" title="Lundin, E., Jonsson, E.: Survey of intrusion detection research. Technical report, Chalmers University of Technology (2002)" href="#ref-CR20" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1488">20</a>].</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="chapter-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5/figures/5" data-track-dest="link:Figure5 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 5" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><p>Figure <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="#Fig5">5</a> gives an overview about the policy structure from the IDS. The structure is seperated in three parts.</p><p> <b><u>Information Collection</u></b> </p><ul class="u-list-style-bullet"> <li> <p> <b>Event / Consumption Generator:</b> </p> <p>The generator is the physical device which collects the real world data. It uses the <i>Information Collecting Policy</i> to decide how the information and which information should be collected.</p> </li> <li> <p> <b>Consumption Events:</b> </p> <p>The <i>Consumption Events</i> are the resulting data which are generated by the <i>Event / Consumption Generator</i>. The events are handled by a storage process and stored in a central location such as a database.</p> </li> <li> <p> <b>Information Collecting Policy:</b> </p> <p>The <i>Information Collecting Policy</i> defines how information and which information will be collected. For example the collection intervall which characterizes the period between every collected energy consumption measurement. An external information such as meterological information could also be collected, for example the ambient temperature and general weather information. And of course the timestemp, when the information is collected.</p> </li> </ul><p> <b><u>Detection</u></b> </p><ul class="u-list-style-bullet"> <li> <p> <b>IDS Sensor:</b> </p> <p>The <i>IDS Sensor</i> analyse the preserved information and tries to detect suspicious or abnormal behaviour. How the collected data is processed is defined by the <i>Detection Policy</i>. Also additional <i>System Information</i> can be considered for the data analysis by the sensor.</p> </li> <li> <p> <b>System Information:</b> </p> <p>To support the <i>IDS Sensor</i> during the detection process and the to decide if an anomaly is an attack or a false positive / false negative, additional information for example actual meterological information like the temperature could be used. The <i>System Information</i> privide such kind of information.</p> </li> <li> <p> <b>Detection Policy:</b> </p> <p>The <i>Detection Policy</i> specifies to which extent the energy flow will be monitored and stored. The <i>Detection Policy</i> could also define a value how detailed the collected data is analysed. The policy could also define which algorithm (for example which ML algorithm) is used to process the data. The policy also contains information how the determined results should be interpreted.</p> </li> </ul><p> <b><u>Response</u></b> </p><ul class="u-list-style-bullet"> <li> <p> <b>Attack Response Module:</b> </p> <p>This module contacts the <i>Prosumer</i> and informs him or her about an incident. The user can now react on this event and can decide the next steps.</p> </li> <li> <p> <b>Response Policy:</b> </p> <p>The policy defines how, when and who gets informed about incidents. For example just the <i>Prosumer</i> gets informed or also a centralised database as descriped in Sect. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="section anchor" href="#Sec9">4</a>. The information to the user could be commited over SMS, as an E-Mail, over a web interface or an API and a connected Smartphone Application.</p> </li> </ul> <p>The policies could be connected to attach conditions or to sum them up.</p><h3 class="c-article__sub-heading" id="Sec8"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">3.3 </span>How NILM Works</h3><p>As described before, every device should be identified and be known by the sytem. At least an abnormal behaviour should be detected. NILM is a concept which can fulfill these requirement. The idea of NILM is over 25 years old and there were many different NILM algorithms and concepts developed since.</p><p>We will give a short overview about NILM and how it works. The functionality can be classified in three main principles:</p><ul class="u-list-style-bullet"> <li> <p>In the <i>first</i> step, characteristic consumption or production data of appliances has to be collected. This means that the overall energy consumption of a household is measured and collected. The collection can be realised by external hardware or within a smart meter. The actual research distinguishes between two different collection methods, the high-frequency and low-frequency data collection. Though there is no exact definition of high-frequency and low-frequency [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 13" title="Gupta, S., Reynolds, M.S., Patel, S.N.: ElectriSense: single-point sensing using EMI for electrical event detection and classification in the home. In: Proceedings of the 12th ACM International Conference on Ubiquitous Computing, pp. 139–148. ACM (2010)" href="#ref-CR13" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1690">13</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 24" title="Parson, O., Ghosh, S., Weal, M., Rogers, A.: An unsupervised training method for non-intrusive appliance load monitoring. Artif. Intell. 217, 1–19 (2014)" href="#ref-CR24" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1693">24</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 30" title="Zeifman, M., Roth, K.: Nonintrusive appliance load monitoring: Review and outlook. IEEE Trans. Consum. Electron. 57(1), 76–84 (2011)" href="#ref-CR30" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1696">30</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 31" title="Zoha, A., Gluhak, A., Imran, M., Rajasegarar, S.: Non-intrusive load monitoring approaches for disaggregated energy sensing: a survey. Sensors 12(12), 16838–16866 (2012)" href="#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1699">31</a>].</p> </li> <li> <p>In the <i>second</i> step, collected raw data has to be processed. This process is called <i>feature extraction</i>. Its goal is to generate an individual signature for every device [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 31" title="Zoha, A., Gluhak, A., Imran, M., Rajasegarar, S.: Non-intrusive load monitoring approaches for disaggregated energy sensing: a survey. Sensors 12(12), 16838–16866 (2012)" href="#ref-CR31" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1714">31</a>]. A signature should be unique and describes a characteristic temporal change of consumption of each device. As a data base the real power and reactive power for a device can be used [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 1" title="Baranski, M., Voss, J.: Genetic algorithm for pattern detection in NIALM systems. In: 2004 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, vol. 4, pp. 3462–3468. IEEE (2004)" href="#ref-CR1" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1717">1</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 9" title="Figueiredo, M., De Almeida, A., Ribeiro, B.: Home electrical signal disaggregation for non-intrusive load monitoring (NILM) systems. Neurocomput. 96, 66–73 (2012)" href="#ref-CR9" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1720">9</a>, <a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 28" title="Streubel, R., Yang, B.: Identification of electrical appliances via analysis of power consumption. In: 2012 47th International on Universities Power Engineering Conference (UPEC), pp. 1–6. IEEE (2012)" href="#ref-CR28" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1724">28</a>].</p> </li> <li> <p>After the raw data is analysed and signatures are generated, classification methods are used to disaggregate appliances in a <i>third</i> step. The classification can be separated in supervised and unsupervised classification. For the supervised method, labelled datasets are produced. This means that every generated signature is related to a device designation label which is set manually. In contrast, the unsupervised classification needs no external influence. This means that the device designation labels are already present in a pre-delivered database [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 11" title="Goncalves, H., Ocneanu, A., Berges, M., Fan, R.H.: Unsupervised disaggregation of appliances using aggregated consumption data. In: The 1st KDD Workshop on Data Mining Applications in Sustainability (SustKDD) (2011)" href="#ref-CR11" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1736">11</a>], are generated from the real power and reactive power plot or use a HMM and variations from this model, for example CFHMM [<a data-track="click" data-track-action="reference anchor" data-track-label="link" data-test="citation-ref" aria-label="Reference 17" title="Kim, H., Marwah, M., Arlitt, M.F., Lyon, G., Han, J.: Unsupervised disaggregation of low frequency power measurements. In: SDM, vol. 11, pp. 747–758. SIAM (2011)" href="#ref-CR17" id="ref-link-section-d994744e1739">17</a>].</p> </li> </ul><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-6" data-title="Fig. 6."><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig6" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 6.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5/figures/6" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-319-39028-4_5/MediaObjects/416270_1_En_5_Fig6_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig6" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-319-39028-4_5/MediaObjects/416270_1_En_5_Fig6_HTML.gif" alt="figure 6" loading="lazy"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-6-desc"><p>Example of an energy consumption graph. The red line shows the overall consumption, the other colours show devices inside a household (Color figure online).</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="chapter-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5/figures/6" data-track-dest="link:Figure6 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 6" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div><div class="c-article-section__figure js-c-reading-companion-figures-item" data-test="figure" data-container-section="figure" id="figure-7" data-title="Fig. 7."><figure><figcaption><b id="Fig7" class="c-article-section__figure-caption" data-test="figure-caption-text">Fig. 7.</b></figcaption><div class="c-article-section__figure-content"><div class="c-article-section__figure-item"><a class="c-article-section__figure-link" data-test="img-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="image" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5/figures/7" rel="nofollow"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-319-39028-4_5/MediaObjects/416270_1_En_5_Fig7_HTML.gif?as=webp"><img aria-describedby="Fig7" src="//media.springernature.com/lw685/springer-static/image/chp%3A10.1007%2F978-3-319-39028-4_5/MediaObjects/416270_1_En_5_Fig7_HTML.gif" alt="figure 7" loading="lazy"></picture></a></div><div class="c-article-section__figure-description" data-test="bottom-caption" id="figure-7-desc"><p>Central incident database.</p></div></div><div class="u-text-right u-hide-print"><a class="c-article__pill-button" data-test="chapter-link" data-track="click" data-track-label="button" data-track-action="view figure" href="/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-39028-4_5/figures/7" data-track-dest="link:Figure7 Full size image" aria-label="Full size image figure 7" rel="nofollow"><span>Full size image</span><svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-chevron-right-small"></use></svg></a></div></figure></div></div></div></section><section data-title="Next Steps"><div class="c-article-section" id="Sec9-section"><h2 id="Sec9" class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item"><span class="c-article-section__title-number">4 </span>Next Steps</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Sec9-content"><p>Figure <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="#Fig6">6</a> depicts an example consumption trace. The red coloured graph shows the overall consumption of a household over a period of time. This trace is known by the SM. The other coloured traces symbolise the energy consumption of appliances inside a household and are inaccessible for the SM. The accumulated consumption of every device inside a household is represented by the overall consumption. If we are able to determine the consupmtion of every appliance, we are able to detect anomalies. Our next step will be the implementation of AMS, based on NILM technology. We want to find out which NILM concept works best for our IDS idea. Some NILM algorithms and concepts are based on ML algorithms. Our next research steps will go in this direction. We will implement, train and test different ML concepts, based on energy consumption traces gathered in the real world.</p><p>For future ideas, the decentralised IDS could be combined with a centralised evaluation and analysis system, for example to detect false positives (Fig. <a data-track="click" data-track-label="link" data-track-action="figure anchor" href="#Fig7">7</a>). To come back to the air conditioning example, this could also be a false positive, caused by an unusual warm day. 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