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<title>Introduction to Drugs</title>
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<dc:creator><![CDATA[UpRiverMatt]]></dc:creator>
<pubDate>Wed, 09 Jun 2021 19:45:53 +0000</pubDate>
<category><![CDATA[Drugs]]></category>
<guid isPermaLink="false">https://projectupriver.com/?p=3724</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Drugs, a loaded word filled with numerous bad and good connotations depending on who you are, what you've been told, and what you've experienced on them. Almost everyone tries drugs, many of us become addicted, and a few of us even use them beneficially. ]]></description>
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Drugs, a loaded word filled with numerous bad and good connotations depending on who you are, what you’ve been told, and what you’ve experienced on them. Almost everyone tries drugs, many of us become addicted, and a few of us use them beneficially. Very few of us understand them despite their prevalence and power.
At their most basic, drugs change our bodily chemistry, shifting things into a different gear. This makes them very powerful because they change us from the inside out.
The wide world of drugs includes everything from steroids to cannabis to nootropics, all having very different effects. Not all drugs are made equal. They have very different effects on health, addiction, and your state of body and mind. 
Technically, drugs include both psychoactive and non-psychoactive ones. At UpRiver, we mostly discuss the psychoactive category – the ones that affect your mind.
Drugs should really be thought of as tools. They can be used for good or for bad. Generally, there are no bad drugs, only bad use, however certain drugs do appear to be more harmful than beneficial.
For better or worse, drugs have a powerful ability to alter our habits. If you are taking drugs, take them wisely. 
Welcome to the world of drugs as it exists on UpRiver.
UpRiver does not condone any illegal or unhealthy use of drugs. All information is for educational purposes only.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><a href="https://projectupriver.com/category/drugs/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/category/drugs/">Articles</a></h2>
To read more, check out our articles listed from beginner to advanced below.
<ol class="wp-block-list"><li><a href="https://projectupriver.com/1-what-are-drugs/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/1-what-are-drugs/">What Are Drugs?</a></li><li><a href="https://projectupriver.com/alcohol-and-health-what-you-need-to-know/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/alcohol-and-health-what-you-need-to-know/">Alcohol</a></li><li><a href="https://projectupriver.com/why-modafinil-is-the-best-of-the-study-drugs/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/why-modafinil-is-the-best-of-the-study-drugs/">Modafinil</a></li><li><a href="https://projectupriver.com/are-nicotine-and-tobacco-unhealthy/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/are-nicotine-and-tobacco-unhealthy/">Nicotine and Tobacco</a></li><li><a href="https://projectupriver.com/caffeine-natures-safe-stimulant/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/caffeine-natures-safe-stimulant/">Caffeine</a></li><li><a href="https://projectupriver.com/what-does-the-science-say-about-mdma/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/what-does-the-science-say-about-mdma/">MDMA</a></li><li><a href="https://projectupriver.com/cannabis/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/cannabis/">Cannabis</a></li><li><a href="https://projectupriver.com/steroids/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/steroids/">Steroids</a></li><li><a href="https://projectupriver.com/9-what-are-the-best-nootropics/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/9-what-are-the-best-nootropics/">Nootropics</a></li></ol>
 
<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><a href="https://projectupriver.com/forums/forum/drugs/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/forums/forum/drugs/">Forum</a></h2>
To connect with our community on nutrition, click <a href="https://projectupriver.com/forums/forum/drugs/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/forums/forum/drugs/">here</a>.
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<title>1. What Are Drugs? Why Do We Do Them?</title>
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<dc:creator><![CDATA[UpRiverMatt]]></dc:creator>
<pubDate>Wed, 14 Apr 2021 22:51:09 +0000</pubDate>
<category><![CDATA[Drugs]]></category>
<guid isPermaLink="false">https://projectupriver.com/?p=2447</guid>
<description><![CDATA[TL;DR: Drugs are a wide classification of chemicals that alter your biology for medical, recreational, or other reasons. Drugs that affect your consciousness are termed psychoactive, with the main categories being stimulants like caffeine, depressants like alcohol, antipsychotics like SSRIs, and hallucinogens like LSD.]]></description>
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TL;DR: Drugs are a wide classification of chemicals that alter your biology for medical, recreational, or other reasons. Drugs that affect your consciousness are termed psychoactive, with the main categories being stimulants like caffeine, depressants like alcohol, antipsychotics like SSRIs, and hallucinogens like LSD.
Let us just start by saying that, we are not doctors. This article is not medical advice, nor should it be treated as such. This article is purely for educational purposes. Finally, we do not condone the use of any illegal substances nor the use of any prescription drug without a say-so from your physician.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/xNcyjlQ195wbsgWMbL7wjWNhcBl1STBYZJAu1QRh3q17p_Dz_i2Iv1tCQcx_kTYXdEqDkLXCeWhFPsgzHOcA3VVcuheKb1ubldRD4yeXQG5UQ_mOayHL5Q1pgUEAnoUCooPhSm7h" alt=""/></figure></div>
The phrase “feed your head” is taken from the song White Rabbit, the 1967 hit song by Jefferson Airplane, which condoned hallucinogens using Alice in Wonderland as an image [b]
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Introduction</h2>
Caffeine, alcohol, weed, cocaine, magic mushrooms, peyote, LSD, meth, heroin… 
You’ve heard of them, rockstars do them, you’ve probably tried them, and people told you to stay away from them. 
DRUGS.
What are they?
Drugs interest everyone. Half the world is probably on them right now. People do drugs for different reasons, some medical, some for performance enhancement, some for spiritual endeavors, and some just do them for the heck of it.
We can all name a handful of drugs we have tried or know about, but do you know how they work? Do you know what makes alcohol a depressant, or caffeine a stimulant, or why certain drugs make you feel so much different than others? What about which ones are the most and least dangerous?
This article covers basic knowledge of psychoactive drugs, including the categories and how each works, risks, and where to get them (just kidding).
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What Is a Drug?</h2>
A drug is a chemical substance that alters an organism’s physiology or psychology when ingested [1]. Nutrients also do this, but the difference is that drugs don’t seem to serve any necessary biological function.
A psychoactive drug is a drug that alters an organism’s psychology by affecting the central nervous system causing changes in perception, mood, or consciousness [1]. 
Drugs can be taken in many ways, including orally, transdermally, intravenously, or can be inhaled, or snorted depending on the drug.
Drugs encompass a wide range of categories, here are some:
<ul class="wp-block-list"><li>Medical drugs like aspirin for pain, metformin for diabetes, or sildenafil (viagra) for erectile dysfunction</li><li>Antibiotics, antiparasitics, and antifungals to kill certain harmful organisms in our body (read more on the microbiome <a href="https://projectupriver.com/what-is-the-microbiome/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/what-is-the-microbiome/">here</a>)</li><li>Hormone replacement therapy, like insulin, testosterone or thyroid hormone replacement</li><li>Physical performance enhancing drugs like steroids for physical athletics</li><li>Psychoactive drugs like alcohol for recreation, psilocybin for recreation or medical use, or peyote for recreation or spiritual use</li><li>Psychoactive “smart drugs” for mental enhancement like caffeine, or methylphenidate (Ritalin)</li></ul>
Common psychoactive drugs include caffeine, nicotine, alcohol, and THC. These kinds of drugs act on receptors in the nerves that make up our brain and central nervous system which alters the signals they send to each other. This change in signalling is what produces the changes in our minds we recognize.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What Is the Mind?</h2>
Psychoactive drugs make our mind work differently. But, what is the mind? Perception, mood and consciousness describe it pretty well, but what’s the difference between mind and consciousness?
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/fO6HhwUMN7pC-Ls1uLTHNBehcQe3g5CqA48R_h4fWF_3OmXOMj2lKkmmg4SzrznWNapyV5NJS53hNbKq2QAXOz9aD6BZyjeZpfkhZpCvIDYMYYWG27BBflKZF18gbwZT1MQJhY3N" alt=""/></figure></div>
[e]
The famous mind-body problem is at the centre of this first question; we don’t know how the physical brain gives rise to a non-physical mind. Where does the mind come from?
One idea called the computational theory of mind suggests that the nervous system gathers information from the body and the environment and turns them into electrical signals. This information in the form of electrical signals is the mind, like electricity through wires.
So if the mind is the flow of information through the nervous system, what is consciousness? 
Consciousness is the subjective experience of that information flow, the first hand experience of life. The word consciousness comes from Latin conscius, essentially meaning “knowing that one knows”, or sharing knowledge with oneself [3]. So something that shares information with itself is conscious.
We actually have two different aspects of our consciousness, or two distinct levels. There’s the part of us that feels and senses and perceives things directly like animals do, like we’re in a flow state of pure existence. Then, we have a part that has a name for itself, thinks, and is self aware. Only humans really appear to have much of this second level, but animals and humans both have the first. Even insects, bacteria, and inanimate objects have a degree of that first level of consciousness according to some <a href="https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/science/universe-conscious-ncna772956">physicists</a> who think the whole Universe is conscious of itself.
So, the nervous system is like a computer, the mind is like software running on the computer, and consciousness is like the person telling them what to do [4]. This gives us a model to work with.
Psychoactive drugs chemically change how our neurotransmitters work in our nerve cells, which changes the electrical signals sent between them. By changing this information flow, we change where our mind flows, which changes the self-experience of this information that is our consciousness. 
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/ksDHo-DkoUfwzaxl_dHeyOzMvAbSGF5APUy3x4lucpNZTciMuRgUlzn48qH-LFhzsLcH9eQ8lGFzADFOK8tWp_mLxKKCkxF5Yh_L-OZaeOVg-uESs9plYHolpQQVrFa8zk9lwk1e" alt=""/></figure></div>
Alcohol makes our GABA receptors more effective. GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter, meaning it dulls signals in our nerves [f]
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Types of Psychoactive Drugs</h2>
We hear of lots of different types of drugs like stimulants, depressants, psychedelics, opioids, cannabinoids, pain killers, and more. It seems these categories boil down to different combinations of the four below categories:
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/IWMTJxtUjnxP1ASAPRKEp4ZES1GLL-eO1K0r4x_gN2SsBXZLFYEaBm1rkP-N9Go8nxczxtWa8gjXNChyjnSQjN-u2v_z1iNd6vELfktj8i6w49uJl997EXSgDQH2QIQr3e--MPNr" alt=""/></figure></div>
Cool drug chart [c]
You’ll notice many drugs are in multiple categories. It’s good to view substances as being able to exhibit characteristics of any category. For instance, psilocybin – the active ingredient in magic mushrooms – is both a stimulant and a hallucinogen. It’s the same thing with THC, which is, or can be, a hallucinogen, a psychedelic, a dissociative, a stimulant, and a depressant to certain degrees (read more on cannabis <a href="https://projectupriver.com/cannabis/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/cannabis/">here</a>).
Taking different drugs at the same time can be dangerous, such as when they’re both of the same category. This is why two depressants, such as alcohol and codeine (often found in purple drank/lean), are risky to take together as they can slow your nerve signalling so much that you may stop breathing.
New drugs are made all the time now for a variety of applications. LSD is a well known one made in the 60s from a compound found in a fungus. Most antipsychotics have only recently been synthesized. Synthetic drugs have a variety of medical applications, but have also been made for physical or mental enhancement. 
Stimulants
<figure class="wp-block-image is-resized"><img fetchpriority="high" decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/hc0mnRxjH8nb5saOSd88L80tXdYo0r8_wkimlUx9Y0593KlJa1_Nou67o3zbdfmEqxcNwIiOwKr8CH1VSrhUGsGzKTsV3K1i3EMG8QnT_dyU-dGsjftQX0f6i2ySwX3lqKLhzRR0" alt="" width="800" height="600"/></figure>
Read more specifically on caffeine in our article <a href="https://projectupriver.com/?p=2819" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/?p=2819">here</a> [g]
Stimulants, also known as “uppers”, speed up your central nervous system. This has the effect of increasing alertness, awareness, wakefulness, endurance, productivity, as well as motivation, arousal, movement, heart rate and blood pressure. They usually reduce your desire to sleep. They activate the sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight) over the parasympathetic (rest and digest). Often, people feel a “crash” after stimulants wear off.
Stimulants usually work by increasing transmission of the catecholamine neurotransmitter between nerve cells (like caffeine does). They do this by blocking the reuptake of it, or by causing more to be sent from presynaptic nerves to synapses. This increases how much your receptors get, which increases signalling making your neural circuitry run faster. 
Stimulants are often used to improve mental performance, as in the case of caffeine or more powerful prescription drugs like methylphenidate (Ritalin), dextroamphetamine (Adderall), or Modafinil for conditions like ADHD. Due to these desirable effects, a large amount of the world frequently uses and becomes addicted to stimulants like caffeine, nicotine, cocaine and others. College students often take these more powerful drugs to study, though they are designed for learning disabilities and other special cases. [5]
Depressants
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/cBW6whouGjoGJ83Wc9-ETICCiM0fham66Vr3bFuuC818chHXcQZ9nLqW1B80VNhzC7But0AdtWHcFK7aPme6g6t2Avvg4hhlznK5aMx4MsHJeOs8nmy2Z5jeVyRs9LssGa-Njr5L" alt=""/></figure></div>
[h]
Depressants, also known as “downers”, reduce stimulation and arousal of the nervous system. This can cause a reduction in heart rate and blood pressure, a reduction in anxiety, worse motor control, memory impairment, relaxation and pain reduction, and sometimes euphoria. 
Depressants work in a variety of ways, such as increasing the effects of GABA, a primary inhibitory neurotransmitter our nerves use to reduce signaling when needed. The oldest psychoactive drug, and still one of the most widely used in the world, ethanol (drinking alcohol), does this. Strangely, depressants don’t necessarily activate the rest and digest mode like you might think from learning about their stimulant counterpart. In fact, alcohol can actually be somewhat stimulating paradoxically. Read more on alcohol <a href="https://projectupriver.com/alcohol-and-health-what-you-need-to-know/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/alcohol-and-health-what-you-need-to-know/">here</a>.
Depressants are often used to numb pain. Some of these drugs include  alcohol, Xanax, and many opiates. This leads to relatively common addiction because those in chronic pain become dependent on these numbing effects.
Antipsychotics
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/34cpdSZqNvKMflNbbZGpGFciPBezCxp212XwDBzU4_s14TMr2qKWCd3O5EXzkXBsM8c6mVEH_htUbUWjG4J3MgYKhJKC7Fb4uYgjnLZimgpYUruMuCUb7Mb37tbK19LI-baVJHS-" alt=""/></figure></div>
[i]
Psychosis is the condition of finding it hard to distinguish between what’s real and what’s not. It can include seeing and believing in things that aren’t real. It’s mostly seen in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Antipsychotics reduce these symptoms and are often prescribed and taken for extended periods; they were first produced in the 1950s.
These drugs typically work by blocking receptors for dopamine, and some work by blocking serotonin as well. It’s thought in those with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and other related disorders that nerves have too much dopamine signalling, overstimulating your brain and mind. 
Wikipedia notes that “studies hypothesize dopamine dysregulation is involved in Huntington’s disease, ADHD, Tourette’s syndrome, major depression, manic depression, addiction, hypertension and kidney dysfunction”. [7] 
Just like the other categories, people can become dependent on antipsychotics to stabilize themselves, though it seems less prone to recreational use than stimulants and depressants.
Hallucinogens
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/hU4W1Wy_0PA4Q1k7y_Siz7A6wfUfdqk0YmtlJSOcC96R9nYRFByNqVu2JZX9904vJh_geldHrLcpFafXgF2MlSiCdAvNphitlDjog43kDOqTnLFWbwNYg5wpKv75gFD4p8EjNGBf" alt=""/></figure></div>
[j]
Hallucinogens are the opposite of antipsychotics and can cause you to see things in the external world that aren’t there, to perceive things in a different way, and often cause an altered state of consciousness. The word comes from Latin hallūcinātus – to wander in the mind. Each hallucinogen is quite different from another, though they all seem to cause a change of consciousness more drastic than the other three categories. At the same time, users are typically very lucid and awake, there is no drowsiness or loss of intelligence or memory, and no addictive cravings are present. Taking hallucinogens is often called “tripping”, as in a journey, like “tripping acid”.
Types of hallucinogens include classic psychedelics like LSD, MDMA, and psilocybin, as well as newer categories including dissociatives like ketamine, deliriants like high doses of benadryl, and empathogens/entactogens like MDMA (again). Some of these have powerful medical applications. Hallucinogens, like antipsychotics, are less well understood and less widely used than stimulants and depressants.
Hallucinogens are not very addictive, as you can see from the examples like LSD and mescaline in the below chart [8].
Perhaps one special risk of hallucinogens is something called persisting perception disorder, aka “flashbacks”, where the distortions you experience on the drug come back for periods of time. This can be unpleasant or enjoyable depending on the circumstance, and may subside with time. However, there is a relatively strong link between having a psychotic episode on a hallucinogen, and later being diagnosed as a schizophrenic [9]. Those prone to psychosis should be careful with hallucinogens.
Medical Drugs
Often, medical drugs don’t affect our nervous system, so are non-psychoactive. They may affect our cardiovascular system like sildenafil (Viagra) does, our immune system like adalimumab (Humira) does, or anything else about our biology. Some medical drugs for mental conditions obviously do affect the mind, like SSRIs which are in the antipsychotic/stimulant category.
Performance Enhancing Drugs
Anabolic steroids enhance physical recovery and build muscle and athleticism faster. Since these are so effective, legality in sports is a contentious issue. Testosterone is a hormone and a steroid that we naturally produce, and it can be taken as a drug to boost performance. Read more on steroids in our article <a href="https://projectupriver.com/steroids/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/steroids/">here</a>.
Nootropics, or “smart drugs”, improve your mental abilities including memory, concentration, thought, mood and learning. Methylphenidate (Ritalin) and caffeine are two examples, as well as less-well known drugs like piracetam, and acetyl-L carnitine. They are often stimulants. There are also natural drugs like lion’s mane mushroom, and ashwagandha that are used as smart drugs. Some even microdose stronger psychoactive drugs like mushrooms or LSD to boost creativity and productivity. For more “smart drugs” see our article <a href="https://projectupriver.com/9-what-are-the-best-nootropics/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/9-what-are-the-best-nootropics/">here</a>, and our article dedicated to modafinil specifically <a href="https://projectupriver.com/?p=2460" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/?p=2460">here</a>.
Spiritual Drugs
Some drugs, like the hallucinogen peyote, have thousands of years of history being used for religious and healing purposes. Many cultures recognize an immense power in these drugs’ ability to alter their state of consciousness for insight or spiritual experience. Some more primitive cultures even had highly respected Shaman, or “medicine men” who would use hallucinogens to inform their community and make important decisions.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Addiction and Harm</h2>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/9sOZq5GPr6xqMkTDtijeMF1RFXIwalR61fL-MMw5LsJV9iQ_uXKUVlIA6lube4Tcbv5rNLnyYQrDyvaW3K9QhdqGnNwKtbepTA6CC3qy6TgWyZFjS1Lx3ZLYFo8otMuePpTXvQfJ" alt=""/></figure></div>
[a]
Each drug above is measured by how deadly it is on the x-axis, and how addictive it is on the y-axis. Top right = dangerous, bottom left = less dangerous as a general rule.
Drugs are addictive. The habit-building machinery in our brains are designed to encourage good behaviour, however drugs shortcut this machinery by giving us instant gratification. We recognize the power of both <a href="https://projectupriver.com/hack-your-habits/">habits</a> and <a href="https://projectupriver.com/play-the-long-game/">delayed gratification</a> in our mindset articles, and we don’t want our habits negatively affected by misuse of drugs. Different drugs are clearly much more addictive than others, though it’s hard to measure precisely. Heroin and nicotine are known to be highly addictive, and drugs like caffeine are known to be somewhat addictive. Note that stimulants and depressants tend to be the most addictive (heroin and morphine being depressants).
Drugs can also be harmful and even deadly. Alcohol, for example, is moderately addictive and has an active dose/lethal dose of 0.1 meaning a 10-1 ratio. So, let’s say 4 beers makes you feel buzzed, then 40 will kill you (assuming it’s in a similar time frame). For a drug like LSD that takes 50 micrograms to feel the effects of, you would have to take at least 1000 times that, or 50 grams, to die from it. You’re far more likely to damage your body or brain and to die from drugs on the right of the chart. Most people can probably attest to the fact that a few too many drinks feels a whole lot worse than a few too many coffees the next day.
When drugs are both addictive and harmful, you’ve got a repeating damaging effect that’s at least partially out of your control, which is not ideal. See our article on combating addiction <a href="https://projectupriver.com/addiction/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/addiction/">here</a>. Although not technically a drug, porn often acts like one. See our article on the harms of porn here.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Tolerance</h2>
When we take a drug, our body tries to get rid of it because it wants to go back to a state of homeostasis. Each time it does this, it builds up machinery to do it faster the next time and it’s better at doing this for some drugs than others. Most people who start with one daily coffee and end up at 3 or 4 can tell from their experience that drugs get less effective the more you do them. 
For more harmful drugs, tolerance can be an additional risk as more of the harmful substance is needed. Alcohol, being on a higher level of physical harm on the x-axis above compared to something like caffeine, shows this effect as alcoholics certainly look a lot worse off than caffeine addicts. Heroin addicts.. well..
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>
Drugs are fascinating because they change our very selves, and can change our experience of life fundamentally. Some drugs don’t affect our minds, often medical ones, but drugs that do are called psychoactive drugs. These include stimulants, depressants, antipsychotics, and hallucinogens. Psychoactive drugs work by changing the signaling happening in our nervous system through altering neurotransmitter signals like those for dopamine. They can be addictive and physically harmful to us, and over time we need more of the same drug to feel the effects as our tolerance builds up.
People do drugs for a variety of reasons from medical to recreational to spiritual, but always to achieve a desired change in body, mind, or consciousness.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Matt-Stamp-e1615389623518.png" alt="This image has an empty alt attribute; its file name is Matt-Stamp-e1615389623518.png"/></figure></div>
References: [1] <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug</a>  [2] <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness#Etymology">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness#Etymology</a> [3] <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness#Etymology">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness#Etymology</a> [4] <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/theory-knowledge/201112/what-is-the-mind">https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/theory-knowledge/201112/what-is-the-mind</a>  [5] <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulant#Mechanisms_of_action">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stimulant#Mechanisms_of_action</a>  [6] <a href="https://www.verywellhealth.com/how-drugs-work-in-your-body-1124115">https://www.verywellhealth.com/how-drugs-work-in-your-body-1124115</a> [7] <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine_antagonist">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine_antagonist</a> [8] <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucinogen#Characteristics">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucinogen</a> [9] <a href="https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/drug-psychosis-may-pull-schizophrenia-trigger">https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/drug-psychosis-may-pull-schizophrenia-trigger</a>
Images [a] <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_harmfulness">https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FDrug_harmfulness&psig=AOvVaw3VPLrKP-rf01dW9V57-sMP&ust=1616709575978000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCKDQvdL2ye8CFQAAAAAdAAAAABA9</a>  [b] <a href="https://images.fineartamerica.com/images/artworkimages/mediumlarge/2/feed-your-head-ali-chris.jpg">https://images.fineartamerica.com/images/artworkimages/mediumlarge/2/feed-your-head-ali-chris.jpg</a> [c] <a href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Drug_Chart_Color.jpg">http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Drug_Chart_Color.jpg</a>  [d] <a href="https://d207ibygpg2z1x.cloudfront.net/image/upload/v1586561082/articles_upload/content/ejuktec3mb8wv51i9nlm.png">https://d207ibygpg2z1x.cloudfront.net/image/upload/v1586561082/articles_upload/content/ejuktec3mb8wv51i9nlm.png</a>  [e]<a href="https://www.newstatesman.com/sites/default/files/styles/cropped_article_image/public/blogs_2017/02/2017_07_consciousness.jpg?itok=IkRmrc20">https://www.newstatesman.com/sites/default/files/styles/cropped_article_image/public/blogs_2017/02/2017_07_consciousness.jpg?itok=IkRmrc20</a>  [f] <a href="https://howtogetabetternightssleep.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/GABA-A_Receptor-with-alcohol.jpg">https://howtogetabetternightssleep.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/GABA-A_Receptor-with-alcohol.jpg</a>  [g] <a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/A_small_cup_of_coffee.JPG">https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/A_small_cup_of_coffee.JPG</a>  [h] <a href="https://cdn-b.william-reed.com/var/wrbm_gb_hospitality/storage/images/publications/hospitality/bighospitality.co.uk/article/2018/04/26/beer-quiz-25-questions-to-test-your-knowledge/2807204-1-eng-GB/Beer-quiz-25-questions-to-test-your-knowledge_wrbm_large.jpg">https://cdn-b.william-reed.com/var/wrbm_gb_hospitality/storage/images/publications/hospitality/bighospitality.co.uk/article/2018/04/26/beer-quiz-25-questions-to-test-your-knowledge/2807204-1-eng-GB/Beer-quiz-25-questions-to-test-your-knowledge_wrbm_large.jpg</a>  [i] <a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Zyprexa.PNG">https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Zyprexa.PNG</a> [j] <a href="https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2020/01/GettyImages-1151266850-9c8e491.jpg?quality=90&resize=768,574">https://images.immediate.co.uk/production/volatile/sites/4/2020/01/GettyImages-1151266850-9c8e491.jpg?quality=90&resize=768,574</a>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
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<title>2. Alcohol and Health: What You Need to Know</title>
<link>https://projectupriver.com/alcohol-and-health-what-you-need-to-know/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=alcohol-and-health-what-you-need-to-know</link>
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<dc:creator><![CDATA[UpRiverGreg]]></dc:creator>
<pubDate>Mon, 19 Apr 2021 08:24:00 +0000</pubDate>
<category><![CDATA[Drugs]]></category>
<guid isPermaLink="false">https://projectupriver.com/?p=2467</guid>
<description><![CDATA[TL;DR: Alcohol, or ethanol, is a popular depressant drug made through the fermentation of sugars in plants. It stimulates the release of serotonin and dopamine, as well as inhibits neural activity leading to feelings of euphoria and reduced motor control. Despite its pervasiveness, alcohol is highly dangerous, being responsible for 5.3% of all global deaths.]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div id="bsf_rt_marker">
TL;DR: Alcohol, or ethanol, is a popular depressant drug made through the fermentation of sugars in plants. It stimulates the release of serotonin and dopamine, as well as inhibits neural activity leading to feelings of euphoria and reduced motor control. Despite its pervasiveness, alcohol is highly dangerous, being responsible for 5.3% of all global deaths.
Let us just start by saying that, we are not doctors. This article is not medical advice, nor should it be treated as such. This article is purely for educational purposes. Finally, we do not condone the use of any illegal substances nor the use of any prescription drug without a say-so from your physician.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Intro</h2>
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Beers on the patio, wine & cheese parties, drinking games, nightcaps and birthday shots. Alcohol plays such a large part in day to day life that most people don’t even consider it to be a drug, and of those that do, many still consider it as wholly other to the conventional “harder” drugs.
The reality is that, despite being consumed by a whopping 85% [4] of the world’s adult population, alcohol is a drug much like all the others, and a very harmful one at that.
This article will provide an overview of alcohol. It will give a description of what alcohol is and how it works. It will also discuss hangovers and overview some of the health concerns involved with using alcohol. 
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What is Alcohol?</h2>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter is-resized"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/oOE-f_P67rDP5lPfNV4BwLU9EFMNHG1NWbTxvWb-Ba_jvBSejToc_RdYVzP6iLgLqWizylvmtQLe2XHzp8a5KGQlGAMPemJUu3S3avxsTA-Q6Cir0k-qcjz3pnVkQriAvS9OnLg0" alt="" width="550" height="377"/></figure></div>
Alcohol, known by its chemical name of ethanol, is the active drug in alcoholic drinks including beer, wine and liquor. Ethanol is produced through the fermentation of sugars in various plants. For example, beer is made through the fermentation of the sugars in barley, wine is made through the fermentation of the sugars in grapes and vodka is made through the fermentation of the sugars in potatoes. [1]
Even though it is the most popular party drug in the world, notorious for getting people fired up and crazy, alcohol is actually classified as a depressant. This is because it slows down the central nervous system, slowing down motor function, leading to reduced motor control, slurred speech and reduced reaction time. [2]
For more information on depressants and other drug classifications check out our intro to drugs article <a href="https://projectupriver.com/1-what-are-drugs/" data-type="post" data-id="2447">here</a>.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">How Does Alcohol Work?</h2>
When you drink an alcoholic beverage, small blood vessels begin to absorb the alcohol into your bloodstream as it moves through your digestive tract. It is estimated that about 20% of the alcohol is absorbed in your stomach and 80% is absorbed through your small intestine. [2]
Alcohol is then taken through your bloodstream to be metabolized by your liver, converting it into water and carbon monoxide. Your liver can process, on average, about 1 oz of alcohol per hour. Drinking in excess of 1oz of alcohol per hour exceeds the rate in which you liver can process it so the alcohol will remain in your blood as it waits to be processed, raising your Blood Alcohol Content (BAC).
Since your blood now contains a quantity of alcohol in it, the alcohol gets distributed all over your body to your various organs. When alcohol reaches your brain it affects it in various ways, leading to the commonly known state of being drunk. Alcohol stimulates the release of both serotonin and dopamine in the brain, commonly known as the “feel-good” chemicals, which leads to an excited and euphoric feeling as your BAC begins to rise. This release of dopamine is what makes alcohol potentially addictive to users.
Alcohol also affects the functioning of neurotransmitters throughout the brain, impeding functioning. The exact interactions of alcohol with neurotransmitters is not currently fully understood, however it has been shown to increase the activity of the GABA neurotransmitter, the brain’s major inhibitory neurotransmitter. It has also been shown to inhibit the action of glutamate receptors, the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain [3]. The combination of these two effects leads to a reduction of neural activity. This reduction leads to the slowing effects of alcohol, such as loss of motor control and balance, slurred speech and impaired judgement.
The higher the BAC, the more pronounced the symptoms will be. Below is a list of common symptoms experienced at various BAC levels: [2]
0.02 – 0.03 Few obvious effects; slight intensification of mood. 0.05 – 0.06 Feeling of warmth, relaxation, mild sedation; exaggeration of emotion and behavior; slight decrease in reaction time and in fine-muscle coordination; impaired judgment about continued drinking. 0.07 – 0.09 More noticeable speech impairment and disturbance of balance; impaired motor coordination, hearing and vision; feeling of elation or depression; increased confidence; may not recognize impairment. 0.08 Legal definition of intoxication in California for people 21 years and older. 0.11 – 0.12 Coordination and balance becoming difficult; distinct impairment of mental faculties and judgment. 0.14 – 0.15 Major impairment of mental and physical control; slurred speech, blurred vision and lack of motor skills; needs medical evaluation. 0.20 Loss of motor control; must have assistance moving about; mental confusion; needs medical assistance. 0.30 Severe intoxication; minimum conscious control of mind and body; needs hospitalization. 0.30 – 0.60 This level of alcohol has been measured in people who have died of alcohol intoxication. 0.40 Unconsciousness; coma; needs hospitalization.
There are various factors that will affect your BAC. Firstly, women usually have their BAC raised faster than men, as they have less water content in their bodies. This causes alcohol to get less diluted. Your body weight is also a factor, as less body mass means there is less area for the alcohol to be distributed, leading to a faster raise in your BAC. The amount of food in your stomach is also a factor, as if you have an empty stomach the alcohol will pass quickly through to your small intestines, where it is absorbed at a much higher rate. Alternatively, if you have food in your stomach, the alcohol will stay there for longer, giving your liver more time to process the alcohol already in your blood.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Hangovers</h2>
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That dreaded tired, achey, nauseous feeling of a hangover you get from a night of heavy drinking is a combination of dehydration, withdrawal (from alcohol) and in more serious cases even poisoning. 
The severity of a hangover can be reduced by eating food before you drink, mixing in water in between your drinks and pacing yourself. A bad hangover can also be partially remedied the morning of by drinking lots of water and eating a large meal as processing alcohol leads to a drop in blood-sugar, leading to headaches. [2]
Another more controversial method for treating hangovers is known as “the hair of the dog (that bit you)”, where you have another alcoholic drink the morning after a night of heavy drinking. The idea of this is that the extra alcohol will treat your withdrawal portion of your hangover, thus reducing the severity of the hangover. The jury is still out on this one however, as some make the counterpoint that drinking more will just prolong the amount of time that your body has to work on processing the alcohol, prolonging hangover symptoms.
A common misconception is that caffeine (check out our article HERE (LINK)) is a solid hangover remedy. Unfortunately, it actually does more harm than good as a hangover cure. While a nice hot cup of coffee may make you temporarily feel more awake and alert after a night of heavy drinking, consuming caffeine is actually dehydrating, which will only serve to worsen hangover symptoms. Thus, after a night of partying it’s best to just stick to a big old glass of water.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Health Concerns of Alcohol</h2>
Despite its legal status and broad pervasiveness across most cultures, alcohol is actually quite a harmful and destructive drug. In 2016 3 million deaths, an incredible 5.3% of ALL global deaths, was attributed to alcohol consumption. This makes it globally the seventh leading cause of premature death and disability. In 2010 alcohol misuse in the US was estimated to cost $249 billion dollars, with ¾ of the cost being directly related to binge drinking. Alcohol is the third leading cause of preventable death in the United States, trailing only behind tobacco and poor diet/physical activity [4].
Below, some of the common health concerns that come from alcohol consumption.
Poisoning
The definition of a poison is as follows: a substance that is capable of causing the illness or death of a living organism when introduced or absorbed. [5] Alcohol, especially at high doses, fits the bill. In the US there are an estimated 2,200 [6] alcohol poisoning deaths per year, which translates to about 6 per day.
The American Addictions Center [6] provides the following ways in which alcohol can poison you:
<ul class="wp-block-list"><li>Slowing brain functions, starting with balance and coordination, but eventually affecting other body systems</li><li>Irritating the stomach and causing vomiting</li><li>Stopping gag reflex as muscles lose sensitivity and coordination, which can lead the individual to choke on their own vomit</li><li>Affecting the nerves that control heartbeat and breathing, which can cause these functions to slow down, become irregular, or stop altogether</li><li>Drastically lowering blood sugar, leading to seizures</li><li>Lowering body temperature, which can cause hypothermia</li><li>Dehydrating the body, which can lead to brain damage</li></ul>
In short, alcohol poisoning can be quite deadly and should be taken seriously. If one of your friends seems to have crossed the threshold from “hammered” to “poisoned”, you should call emergency services or take them to the hospital to get their stomach pumped (if you haven’t also been drinking, that is!). Symptoms of alcohol poisoning include inability to stay conscious, vomiting while unconscious, cold, clammy skin that’s blue around the lips or under the fingernails, irregular pulse, depressed breathing and seizures.
Addiction/Long Term Damage
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As mentioned above, alcohol causes your brain to release dopamine, which gives it the potential to be highly addictive. Alcohol addiction, more commonly referred to as alcoholism, is a disease that plagues many people around the world. Along with screwing up your life, due to your inability to hold down a job, a relationship, or really anything because you’re drunk all the time, alcoholism can have some serious long-term health complications.
The Mayo Clinic [7] sites the following health complications that arise with long term alcohol use:
<ul class="wp-block-list"><li>Liver disease. Heavy drinking can cause increased fat in the liver (hepatic steatosis), inflammation of the liver (alcoholic hepatitis), and over time, irreversible destruction and scarring of liver tissue (cirrhosis).</li><li>Digestive problems. Heavy drinking can result in inflammation of the stomach lining (gastritis), as well as stomach and esophageal ulcers. It can also interfere with absorption of B vitamins and other nutrients. Heavy drinking can damage your pancreas or lead to inflammation of the pancreas (pancreatitis).</li><li>Heart problems. Excessive drinking can lead to high blood pressure and increases your risk of an enlarged heart, heart failure or stroke. Even a single binge can cause a serious heart arrhythmia called atrial fibrillation.</li><li>Diabetes complications. Alcohol interferes with the release of glucose from your liver and can increase the risk of low blood sugar (hypoglycemia). This is dangerous if you have diabetes and are already taking insulin to lower your blood sugar level.</li><li>Sexual function and menstruation issues. Excessive drinking can cause erectile dysfunction in men. In women, it can interrupt menstruation. </li><li>Eye problems. Over time, heavy drinking can cause involuntary rapid eye movement (nystagmus) as well as weakness and paralysis of your eye muscles due to a deficiency of vitamin B-1 (thiamin). A thiamin deficiency can also be associated with other brain changes, such as irreversible dementia, if not promptly treated.</li><li>Birth defects. Alcohol use during pregnancy may cause miscarriage. It may also cause fetal alcohol syndrome, resulting in giving birth to a child who has physical and developmental problems that last a lifetime.</li><li>Bone damage. Alcohol may interfere with the production of new bone. This bone loss can lead to thinning bones (osteoporosis) and an increased risk of fractures. Alcohol can also damage bone marrow, which makes blood cells. This can cause a low platelet count, which may result in bruising and bleeding.</li><li>Neurological complications. Excessive drinking can affect your nervous system, causing numbness and pain in your hands and feet, disordered thinking, dementia, and short-term memory loss.</li><li>Weakened immune system. Excessive alcohol use can make it harder for your body to resist disease, increasing your risk of various illnesses, especially pneumonia.</li><li>Increased risk of cancer. Long-term, excessive alcohol use has been linked to a higher risk of many cancers, including mouth, throat, liver, esophagus, colon and breast cancers. Even moderate drinking can increase the risk of breast cancer.</li></ul>
 In 2016, 21.3% of global alcohol related deaths were due to digestive issues (mainly cirrhosis and pancreatitis), 19% were due to cardiovascular disease, 12.9% were due to infectious diseases and 12.6% were due to cancers (most commonly in the aerodigestive tract) [4].
Unfortunately, kicking alcoholism is often a bit more complicated than just quitting drinking cold-turkey. Many alcoholics experience severe, physical withdrawal symptoms including shaky hands, night-sweats, intense head-aches and discomfort, fever, strong cravings and insomnia.  In more severe cases, alcohol withdrawal can even cause seizures or hallucinations. 
Thankfully, there are many rehabilitation centers, as well as support groups, like Alcoholics Anonymous, that assist people in getting past their withdrawal and on with their lives.  
Stupidity
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/_sGe0HyNn7KEppKA_I1PhNKyBZ1P66LEap4ra_oBSZWvWK3Mb-CvAvW7XE2X0baedj-Wil2ZM4J0HkfbQrhnc6iI8MKY_7n2nUWakZqdiyV3VFEAo5m2UJ7Rta6KFH2OsGCyDRMR" alt=""/></figure></div>
It can be lots of fun to go out, get some drinks and get a little stupid with your friends every once in a while. The problem is that far too many people get far too stupid. Thought you were finished with all the mind-blowingly tragic stats about alcohol? Think again! In 2015 there were 10,265 deaths from drunk driving in the United States. That’s an insane 29% of ALL driving related fatalities. [4] Over 10k people could be alive today, but aren’t because others decided to be stupid and get behind the wheel while drunk.
I’m sure you’ve been lectured to death by parents, teachers and other pillars of society, but the data makes the message clear: don’t drink and drive.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Health Benefits of Alcohol</h2>
So far we have painted a pretty grim picture of the dangers of alcohol, especially when consumed in excess. Many are probably left wondering if there are any actual upsides, from a health standpoint, to cracking open a nice cold beer after a long day. 
Unfortunately, the research in this area is rather limited, and findings are often disputed. However, there does appear to be some health benefits to moderate drinking.
To start, we should probably define exactly what moderate drinking really is. There is, yet again, not a clear consensus on what moderate drinking really is, although it seems to be widely accepted as 1-2 drinks per day for men and 1 drink per day for women. It is important to note here, that 1-2 drinks per day is not equivalent to not drinking throughout the week and then having 7- 14 drinks on Friday. Although the weekly totals both end up the same, the detriments of the latter will greatly outweigh any possible benefits.
The Mayo Clinic [8] sites the following potential health benefits of moderate alcohol consumption: 
<ul class="wp-block-list"><li>Reducing your risk of developing and dying of heart disease</li><li>Possibly reducing your risk of ischemic stroke (when the arteries to your brain become narrowed or blocked, causing severely reduced blood flow)</li><li>Possibly reducing your risk of diabetes</li></ul>
It is important to note here that even with strictly moderate drinking, some negative health effects can still be experienced. For example, it has been found that in people who drink no more than one drink per day, there is still a small, yet real, increase in contracting esophageal cancer [8].
If you are genuinely looking to improve your health, there are likely a million better options to use than alcohol. 
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>
Although drinking booze is a favorite pastime of people of all ages and walks of life, it should be remembered that alcohol is in fact a dangerous and potentially deadly drug, and should be treated as such. Enjoy your partying, but also remember to stay within your limits.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter size-large"><img decoding="async" width="150" height="152" src="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Greg-Stamp-e1615389172555.png" alt="" class="wp-image-1931"/></figure></div>
References: [1] <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/why-does-alcohol-make-you-drunk#ethanol">https://www.healthline.com/health/why-does-alcohol-make-you-drunk#ethanol</a> [2] <a href="https://shop.ucsc.edu/alcohol-other-drugs/alcohol/your-body.html">https://shop.ucsc.edu/alcohol-other-drugs/alcohol/your-body.html</a> [3] <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4065474/">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4065474/</a> [4]<a href="https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/brochures-and-fact-sheets/alcohol-facts-and-statistics#:~:text=Prevalence%20of%20Drinking%3A%20According%20to,in%20this%20age%20group%20and">https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/brochures-and-fact-sheets/alcohol-facts-and-statistics#:~:text=Prevalence%20of%20Drinking%3A%20According%20to,in%20this%20age%20group%20and</a> [5] Oxford Languages [6] <a href="https://americanaddictioncenters.org/alcoholism-treatment/overdose">https://americanaddictioncenters.org/alcoholism-treatment/overdose</a> [7] <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/alcohol-use-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20369243#:~:text=Excessive%20alcohol%20use%20can%20make,esophagus%2C%20colon%20and%20breast%20cancers">https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/alcohol-use-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20369243#:~:text=Excessive%20alcohol%20use%20can%20make,esophagus%2C%20colon%20and%20breast%20cancers</a>. [8]<a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/alcohol/art-20044551">https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/in-depth/alcohol/art-20044551</a>
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<title>3. Is Modafinil the Safest Smart Drug?</title>
<link>https://projectupriver.com/why-modafinil-is-the-best-of-the-study-drugs/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=why-modafinil-is-the-best-of-the-study-drugs</link>
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<dc:creator><![CDATA[UpRiverSpencer]]></dc:creator>
<pubDate>Fri, 23 Apr 2021 21:41:00 +0000</pubDate>
<category><![CDATA[Drugs]]></category>
<guid isPermaLink="false">https://projectupriver.com/?p=2460</guid>
<description><![CDATA[TL;DR: Modafinil is a substance that offers a host of cognitive benefits, if used correctly. Learn about this substance and talk to your doctor to see if it is right for you.]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div id="bsf_rt_marker">
TL;DR: Modafinil is a substance that offers a host of cognitive benefits, if used correctly. Learn about this substance and talk to your doctor to see if it is right for you.
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Let us just start by saying that, we are not doctors. This article is not medical advice, nor should it be treated as such. This article is purely for educational purposes. Finally, we do not condone the use of any illegal substances nor the use of any prescription drug without a say-so from your physician. *finally inhales* Okay! Onwards. 
NOTE: As a quick reference, this article will be discussing a drug that has a Schedule IV legal classification and thus requires a doctor’s prescription to use and possess legally.
NOTE: We recommend that before you jump into the use of nootropics or drugs, you should try to optimize your <a href="https://projectupriver.com/category/sleep/">sleep</a> and your <a href="https://projectupriver.com/category/nutrition/">diet</a> as these two can often give you the edge you’re looking for without any added substances.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Introduction</h2>
Forget what your teachers and parents told you. Nootropics and drugs are cool, really cool…
Now, we don’t mean that you should do them for the sake of appearing older or edgier to your friends, we mean that nootropic and drug substances are themselves very fascinating. From a molecular standpoint, all the way to an experiential standpoint, these bad boys have intrigued man since the dawn of time itself. 
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Welcome back, biohacker. Today we will be covering arguably one of the most intriguing kinds of substances, the stimulant. If you’re a biohacker, you will have likely heard of Dave Asprey’s Bulletproof company (as in coffee), and the movies Limitless and Lucy. Well, in this article we will be introducing you to the substance that world-renowned biohackers have used to allegedly grow their businesses to what they are today, as well as the substance that literal movies have been based on: Modafinil.
It is definitely worth mentioning quickly, that while stimulants, in general, can be both dangerous and used recreationally, today we will be talking about them within the context of safe dosages and proper practice. While some people will use these substances to ‘party,’ the biohacker prefers to use these substances for a mental edge when extra productivity is desired or sleep requirements have not been met the previous night.  
We will start by telling you when Modafinil came on the scene. Then we will discuss dosages, how Modafinil can be used by the average biohacker; how Modafinil is used by different walks of life; how this substance sizes up against the other big players in the category; briefly discuss some potential side effects; and then give our own closing remarks on Modafinil as a whole. Throughout this article we reference some online forums, anecdotal reviews, give some of our own opinions and consult clinical literature. It’s going to be a fun ride into the world of Modafinil.
Buckle up. Let’s jump in.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Lineage</h2>
The substance Modafinil, typically sold under the names Provigil, Modalert, Nuvigil, Modvigil and others, was first developed in France in the late 1970s by experimental medicine professor, Michel Jouvet. Later approved by the FDA in 1998,  Modafinil falls into a class of drugs known as “eugeroics” – also known as wakefulness agents. As the classification suggests, it comes as no surprise that drugs in this family are generally used to help treat conditions like narcolepsy, chronic fatigue, and other such ailments related to mental exhaustion and/or sleep deprivation.
In a nutshell, eugeroics are kind of used as if they were longer-lasting, harder-hitting, prescription coffee pills. 
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Image of Michel Jouvet
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Usage</h2>
Despite both Modafinil’s classification and designed purpose of plain ‘wakefulness’, Modafinil has been shown to be promising in many different applications when it comes to general cognitive enhancement. A study done by Danielle Turner et al. published in the Journal of the European Behavioural Pharmacology Society displays some incredible findings. 
The study was conducted with 60 participants being divided into 2 double-blind, randomized groups. One group was given a single oral dose of Modafinil of either 100mg or 200mg (depending on the body weight of the participant), and the other group was given a controlled placebo. The findings were as follows:
Modafinil significantly enhanced performance on tests of digit span, visual pattern recognition memory, spatial planning and stop-signal reaction time. These performance improvements were complemented by a slowing in latency on three tests: delayed matching to sample, a decision-making task and the spatial planning task. [1]
But there’s more. Unsurprisingly, Modafinil is often compared to a couple of its cousins. In psychiatric literature, Modafinil’s familial relatives generally include some popular suspects; these are Adderall – which we will get to soon – as well as the active ingredient in the prescription drug Concerta, methylphenidate. Both Adderall and Concerta are used to treat attention deficit disorder (ADD), attention hyperactivity deficit disorder (ADHD), and narcolepsy by increasing the amount of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain (if you want to learn more about your psychology and how to control it, click <a href="https://projectupriver.com/category/mindset/">HERE.</a>). [2][3]
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We bring up how Modafinil is often compared to others because generally speaking, when patients are prescribed methylphenidate (Concerta), for example, there are some well-documented cognitive drawbacks to its usage. These effects usually have to do with slightly impared memory functions of various sorts. [4] Conversely, though, Modafinil gets even more interesting when we look at what else the researchers had to say about their findings with Modafinil as compared to methylphenidate:
In contrast to previous findings with methylphenidate, there were no significant effects of the drug on spatial memory span, spatial working memory, rapid visual information processing or attentional set-shifting. Additionally, no effects on paired associates learning were identified. [5]
Essentially, what this study suggests is that while Concerta may work for some people for some purposes, Modafinil seems to be outclassing its cousin in terms of total cognitive and performance ROI. 
If you’re wondering what Modafinil actually feels like, you can expect to notice the following effects:
<ul class="wp-block-list"><li>Mood lift</li><li>Energy</li><li>Focus</li><li>Motivation</li><li>Optimistic</li><li>Flow-like states (check out our article on this HERE)</li></ul>
Read more on other smart drugs, or nootropics in our article <a href="https://projectupriver.com/?p=2917" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/?p=2917">here</a>.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Tolerance and Safety </h2>
So, by now you’re probably asking yourself where you can get some Modafinil… However, before we discuss that, it’s important for us to discuss tolerance and the safety of the drug in humans. A study performed by Merrill Milter et al. was published in the Sleep Medicine Journal in order to look at the long-term health effects and efficacy of Modafinil on narcolepsy. 
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The researchers took 478 adult patients with a diagnosis of narcolepsy and had them complete one of two 9-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter, clinical trials of Modafinil. Subsequently, these patients were enrolled in two 40-week, open-label, extension studies, meaning that the patients now knew what they were taking and had taken it for a total of almost a whole year altogether. Here’s, in short, what the researchers found based on these two trials:
The majority of patients (∼75%) received 400 mg of modafinil daily. Disease [narcolepsy] severity improved in >80% of patients throughout the 40-week study. At weeks 2, 8, 24, and 40, disease severity was ‘much improved’ or ‘very much improved’ in 49, 58, 59, and 58% of patients, respectively….[6]
But while this article is not about narcolepsy, and as the studies were longer in nature, the researchers concluded this, as well, which is very relevant to our conversation:
Modafinil is effective for the long-term treatment of EDS (excessive daytime sleepiness) associated with narcolepsy and significantly improves perceptions of general health. Modafinil is well tolerated, with no evidence of tolerance developing during 40 weeks of treatment…The most common treatment-related adverse events were headache (13%), nervousness (8%), and nausea (5%). Most adverse events were mild to moderate in nature. [7]
Even though some users have reported that in their personal experience they feel as though they have built up a tolerance to Modafinil, large-scale clinical studies have found no evidence of tolerance with Modafinil at therapeutic dosages even with prolonged use (for 40 weeks and as long as three years). [8] Therefore, perhaps tolerance comes down to a case by case basis. There are in fact fairly famous accounts of people taking the drug religiously for a much longer period of time than 3 years…
Consider that Dave Asprey, founder of the Bulletproof Coffee and Bulletproof health supplement line, admits to taking Modafinil practically “everyday for 8 years straight.” In fact, he even credits much of the productivity required to build his company to Modafinil. Even after such prolonged use, he continues to sing big M’s praises. [9] Guess for some people there’s no getting tired of Modafinil (pun intended).
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Dosage</h2>
While some people have reported experiencing effects from as little as 25-50mg of orally ingested Modafinil, the typical dose lies somewhere between 100mg on the low end to 400mg on the high end. This dosage is recommended to be taken in the morning with or without food. [10]
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NOTE: Fascinatingly, unlike many other substances, sometimes with Modafinil, less is more. While some users claim to have very little effects on as much as 400mg of modafinil, those same users reported experiencing great cognitive enhancement from a 150mg dose, according to some online forums. In light of this, your personal sweet-spot might require a little bit of personal experimentation and research. Remember, though, that effects and tolerance of substances depend on not just the substance, but also on your particular neurochemistry.
With everything on Modafinil dosage said, Modafinil has been shown to be very safe in animal trials. In rats, oral lethal dose values reported from 1000-3400mg/kg of body weight. [11] This translates to an average 170lbs male requiring about 80g of Modafinil to be on the lower end of potential lethal overdose!
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Modafinil for the Biohacker</h2>
With all the studies out of the way,  we are now going to simply focus on how you, the biohacker, can benefit from this substance, should you choose to take it. As suggested by the introduction, Modafinil is taken by most biohackers for other cognitive-enhancing properties that far exceed those seen by good ol’ Starbucks or your favorite energy drink. 
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Modafinil lasts in the body for approximately 12-15 hours. [12] Users begin to feel effects between 20 minutes to 1 hour after ingestion and it can be taken with or without food. Once the user begins to feel the effects of Modafinil, the cognitive enhancement properties the user will experience include, wakefulness, mood lift, increased focus, increased attention span, and longer <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_(psychology)">flow states</a>. What you do with these benefits is your business, but we recommend trying some <a href="https://projectupriver.com/intro-to-meditation/">meditation</a> or just generally getting sh*t done. In any case, do plan out your day beforehand, as you don’t want to be accidentally sucked into color coordinating your bookshelf or playing Minesweeper for 15 hours (unless that’s your plan, of course).
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Modafinil and Others</h2>
The effects have been so well reported that Armed forces of several countries are known to have expressed interest in Modafinil as an alternative to amphetamine—the drug traditionally employed in combat situations or lengthy missions where troops face sleep deprivation. [13] In fact, even The French government indicated that the Foreign Legion used Modafinil during certain covert operations in order to give their operatives more attention and defence against the drudges of insufficient rest. [14]
Additionally, as we’re talking about armies, you may have heard of the US Airforce’s “go pill.” While historically this topic was shrouded in secrecy and lore, we have finally been told publically about the not-so secret cognitive enhancement weapon used by the U.S. Air Force for a mental edge over its opponents. As of November 2012, modafinil is the only drug approved by the Air Force as a “go pill” for fatigue management. [15]
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Pretty neat.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Modafinil and Other Stims</h2>
If you’re on the greener side of things and haven’t had much experimentation with stimulants or substances in general, when looking at the effects of Modafinil, you may be asking, doesn’t a simple cuppa joe do these same things? The simple answer is, no. 
Whereas caffeine works on the brain as a stimulant, Modafinil technically enters the system in a different way. Modafinil acts as an atypical, selective and weak dopamine reuptake inhibitor. [16] In other words, Modafinil allows more dopamine – the focus, attention, and reward neurotransmitter – to accumulate in a neural synapse, before finally breaking through and, in a sense, ‘flooding your brain.’ This results in more focus for many users, without necessarily giving off the type of stimulation that caffeine would.
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Interestingly enough, many biohackers are known to combine modafinil with coffee as their respective effects have been reported to be mutually reinforcing. If you’re interested in learning how to dose this ‘stack’ accordingly, please click <a href="https://www.modafinil.com/modafinil-and-coffee/">HERE.</a>
The next question you may have then, is how Modafinil differs from a more potent stimulant, such as the infamous pharmaceutical titan, Adderall. 
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While the answer to this question is not simple, in a nutshell, Modafinil has been described as an “atypical” DAT (dopamine active transporter) inhibitor, and shows a profile of effects that is very different from those of other dopaminergic stimulants. [17] For instance, Modafinil produces wakefulness reportedly without the need for compensatory sleep, and shows a relatively low, if any, potential for abuse. [18] Conversely, Adderall has a higher potential for abuse given its euphoric effects unassociated with Modafinil. Modafinil also showed that it inhibits caloric consumption far less than some of its cousins, like Adderall and the aforementioned methylphenidate. [19]
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Another factor that significantly differentiates Adderall from Modafinil is Adderall’s overdose and side effect potential. Suffice it to say that in 2012, over 116,000 people were admitted to rehab for an addiction to amphetamines, like Adderall, in the USA alone. [20] This is perhaps what results in Adderall’s Schedule 2 classification (same as morphine and opium), as opposed to Modafinil’s Schedule 4 classification (a category for drugs with valid medical uses and low but significant addiction potential).
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Side Effects of Modafinil</h2>
According to documentation distributed by Teva Pharmaceuticals, one-third of participants in clinical trials reported experiencing headaches; 11% reported nausea; other negative side-effects such as nervousness, diarrhea, insomnia, anxiety, dizziness, and gastrointestinal problems were reported by fewer than 10% of participants. [21] So – and not to disparage the real potential side effects of these drugs – the side effects so far seem to be in line with watching daytime news nowadays…
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Rare occurrences have been reported of more serious adverse effects, including severe skin rashes and other symptoms that are probably allergy-related. From the date of initial marketing, December 1998, to January 30, 2007, the US Food and Drug Administration received only six cases of severe cutaneous adverse reactions associated with Modafinil, including erythema multiforme (EM), Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS), toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN), and DRESS syndrome, involving adult and pediatric patients. [22]
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Closing Remarks</h2>
While we do not condone the use of any illegal drugs, we take pride in evaluating the research and coming to our own conclusions regarding what is safe and helpful to put in our bodies. 
If used correctly, Modafinil can be an incredible tool in the biohacker’s toolbox for cognitive enhancement. It can increase flow states allowing for better memory, focus, and attention. Furthermore, Modafinil has been clinically shown to be both safe and effective at giving all kinds of people acute cognitive boosts at dosages as small as 100mg. Today, Modafinil remains a Schedule 4 prescription drug in the USA and Canada; but a simple discussion with your doctor regarding your needs may lead to the exact prescription you require to see what this substance can do for you and your journey.
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It is true that Modafinil is not nearly as popular as its cousins Adderall and Concerta. However, patients, clinicians, armies, air forces and biohackers alike are coming around to Modafinil’s powerful cognitive benefits that boast a lower physiological price-tag than the pharmaceutical alternatives. 
Remember that for some, less is more; and for others coffee is a useful adjunct. Moreover, be mindful that Modafinil is a wakefulness agent and has a half-life of about 15 hours, so you should schedule your sleep accordingly to ensure that you can reap the advantages of wakefulness without tarnishing the benefits of a sound sleep (want to sleep better? Click <a href="https://projectupriver.com/category/sleep/">HERE</a>).
We will leave you with this final research conclusion provided to us by a 2015 review of clinical studies looking at possible nootropic effects of Modafinil in healthy people conducted by R.M. Battleday et al.:
“…whilst most studies employing basic testing paradigms show that modafinil intake enhances executive function… half show improvements in attention and learning and memory, and a few even report impairments in divergent creative thinking. In contrast, when more complex assessments are used, modafinil appears to consistently engender enhancement of attention, executive functions, and learning. Importantly, we did not observe any preponderances for side effects or mood changes.” [23]
Boom.
Best of luck, biohacker, and as always, keep moving UpRiver.
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References:
[1] Turner, D.C., Robbins, T.W., Clark, L. et al. Cognitive enhancing effects of modafinil in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology 165, 260–269 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-002-1250-8
[2] 
<a href="https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-19857/concerta-oral/details#:~:text=This%20medication%20is%20used%20to,of%20drugs%20known%20as%20stimulants.">https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-19857/concerta-oral/details#:~:text=This%20medication%20is%20used%20to,of%20drugs%20known%20as%20stimulants.</a>
[3] https://www.webmd.com/drugs/2/drug-63163/adderall-oral/details#:~:text=This%20combination%20medication%20is%20used,of%20drugs%20known%20as%20stimulants
[4] https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s002130050284
[5]  Turner, D.C., Robbins, T.W., Clark, L. et al. Cognitive enhancing effects of modafinil in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology 165, 260–269 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-002-1250-8
[6]  https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1389945700000319
[7] ibid
[8] <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10828434/">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10828434/</a>
[9] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mSOIZvSKEgI 
[10] https://www.rxlist.com/provigil-drug.htm#dosage
[11] “Provigil Prescribing Information” (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. Teva Pharmaceuticals USA, Inc. January 2015. Retrieved July 18, 2015.
[12] https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/5412/smpc#:~:text=The%20excretion%20of%20modafinil%20and,doses%20is%20about%2015%20hours.
[13] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_and_culture_of_substituted_amphetamines#:~:text=Amphetamine%20was%20also%20given%20to,of%20U.S.%20Air%20Force%20pilots.
[14] https://www.sciencefocus.com/the-human-body/sleepless-in-battle/
[15] Air Force Special Operations Command Instruction 48–101 (sects. 1.7.4), U.S. Air Force Special Operations Command, November 30, 2012.
[16] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2654794/
[17] https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2654794/
[18] https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10757254/
[19] ibid
[20] https://www.addictioncenter.com/stimulants/adderall/
[21] https://www.tevagenerics.com/product/modafinil-tablets-civ
[22] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modafinil
[23] Battleday RM, Brem AK. Modafinil for cognitive neuroenhancement in healthy non-sleep-deprived subjects: A systematic review. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2015 Nov;25(11):1865-81. doi: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.07.028. Epub 2015 Aug 20. PMID: 26381811.
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<title>4. Are Nicotine and Tobacco Unhealthy?</title>
<link>https://projectupriver.com/are-nicotine-and-tobacco-unhealthy/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=are-nicotine-and-tobacco-unhealthy</link>
<comments>https://projectupriver.com/are-nicotine-and-tobacco-unhealthy/#respond</comments>
<dc:creator><![CDATA[UpRiverMatt]]></dc:creator>
<pubDate>Tue, 27 Apr 2021 21:44:00 +0000</pubDate>
<category><![CDATA[Drugs]]></category>
<guid isPermaLink="false">https://projectupriver.com/?p=2799</guid>
<description><![CDATA[TL;DR: All tobacco products are highly addictive, cause cancer, and damage your entire body when smoked. Nicotine alone doesn’t cause cancer, but messes up your brain chemistry for months and is highly addictive.]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div id="bsf_rt_marker">
TL;DR: All tobacco products are highly addictive, cause cancer, and damage your entire body when smoked. Nicotine alone doesn’t cause cancer, but messes up your brain chemistry for months and is highly addictive.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Introduction</h2>
Tobacco is one of the most commonly used recreational drugs worldwide, with an estimated 1.27 billion users [6]. According to some sources, it is the leading cause of preventable cancers and accounts for about 5.5 million deaths yearly. In 2003, an international treaty was signed by 170 countries to reduce the use of tobacco products. Currently, the annual world-wide market is estimated at $932 Billion USD and is growing at a rate of 1.8% per year [12]. 
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/rDAnGyNSaLzQjWud0I1AJRr5eLhMtPHBJdredK1W9R78Ezhf5ZiNmlMFK1E_8UbXwXNAtT-RvFgbr9CWcTrzU7KzbHDFKvZ14syRJsAuz0vqbDlAtgpJTGebXVMoFxNrGYFjuHy8" alt=""/></figure></div>
1949 cigarette ad, before heavy regulation of marketing
The main psychoactive compound in tobacco is nicotine, which is a stimulant drug. It is highly addictive and affects essentially every system in the body. This article will discuss what nicotine is, how it affects the brain, the health effects of its different forms, addiction, and it’s one silver lining.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What is Nicotine?</h2>
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Left: The chemical formula for nicotine. Right: a bottle of pure nicotine
Nicotine is a stimulant drug, naturally made in nightshade plants, and is used recreationally across the planet. It is highly addictive. It is found in the highest concentrations in the tobacco plant, at 0.6 – 3.0% of dry weight, and in insignificant amounts of around 0.0001% in nightshades like potatoes, tomatoes, etc. Smoking tobacco, including cigarettes, is by far the most common source of nicotine, which has its own health risks and effects.
Nicotine is a plant defense compound designed to stop herbivores from eating it. It is classified as a poison, but there don’t appear to be strong links to cancer or poisoning in humans, except when handling tobacco leaves for long periods of time. Nicotine causes birth defects in some animals, but not others. It also appears that nicotine disrupts adolescent development.
<figure class="wp-block-table is-style-stripes"><table class="has-fixed-layout"><tbody><tr><td>Method of ingestion</td><td>Smoking, nicotine patch, chewing gum, vaporizer, hookah etc.</td></tr><tr><td>Typical dose</td><td>1 – 10mg (2mg of absorbed nicotine in the average cigarette) [1]</td></tr><tr><td>Lethal dose</td><td>500 – 1,000 mg for the average adult (6.5 – 13 mg/kg)</td></tr><tr><td>Half-life</td><td>1 – 2 hours</td></tr><tr><td>Timing of peak</td><td>Inhaling: peak nicotine blood levels are reached in secondsPatches: 5-10 hours after application [2]</td></tr><tr><td>How does it feel?</td><td>Increased alertness, focus, feeling good, and relaxation for frequent usersNew users experience a “buzz” for less than a minute with lightheadedness, and may experience some of the short term side-effects belowUsers feel relatively “normal”, no hallucinations or psychological impairment</td></tr><tr><td>Addiction potential</td><td>High – similar to morphine. More addicting than caffeine or alcohol.</td></tr><tr><td>Short term side-effects</td><td>May include nausea and loss of appetite, headache, dry mouth, coughing, dizziness, nervousness, sleep disturbances, increased alertness and cognitive performance, elevated blood pressure and heart rate [1]</td></tr><tr><td>Long term side-effects</td><td>Cigarettes cause disease of every system in the body including cancers, heart disease, stroke, lung disease, diabetes, and COPD. Tar eventually coats the lungs, teeth, and throat. An estimated 16 million Americans (5%) live with a disease caused by smoking. [3] Half of those who start smoking die from it [4]. According to <a href="http://www.cancer.org">www.cancer.org</a>, in the US roughly 1 in 5 deaths are from tobacco products [8]. Many studies have shown that nicotine alone acts as a carcinogen and that it adversely affects the heart, reproductive system, lungs, kidneys, and nervous system. It increases oxidative stress and death of neurons, DNA damage, and reactive oxygen species – all of which accelerate aging. There is also some evidence that it changes adolescent brain development affecting intelligence. [6]</td></tr><tr><td>Uses</td><td>Nicotine patches to wean off of cigarettes (limited evidence of success)Pesticide on crops (more common historically)RecreationStimulation and enhanced cognitionLooking cool</td></tr><tr><td>Summary</td><td>Nicotine is highly addictive, has a short half life of an hour or two, gives you a short term feeling of alertness and feeling good, affects a huge range of systems in the body, and is deadly long-term when smoked in the form of tobacco.</td></tr></tbody></table></figure>
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">How Does Nicotine Affect Your Brain?</h2>
Inhaled tobacco smoke, which is partially nicotine, is absorbed through our lungs into our bloodstream and the nicotine reaches the receptors in our brain in less than 10 seconds. From here it activates receptors actually designed for acetylcholine. 
Acetylcholine is a critical neurotransmitter responsible for attention and focus. Every cell type in the brain has a receptor for it. This is likely why it has such a diverse range of effects on every system in our body. Acetylcholine receptors are also found in cells outside of the brain and nervous system. 
One such type of cell are dopaminergic neurons in a region of the brain called the nucleus accumbens. When nicotine activates the acetylcholine receptors on them, they release dopamine, which in the short-term makes us feel good. Dopamine release is involved in all addictive drugs – it is a key reward signal our bodies use to tell us to do more of something. 
GABA and serotonin are also released, making us feel more relaxed and happy. In the hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex, glutamate and acetylcholine are released – these are important for learning, memory, and concentration.
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It takes 6-12 weeks of abstinence to return to a normal level of nicotinic receptors (any receptor triggered by nicotine)
Tolerance develops because acetylcholine receptors desensitize to the bombardment of nicotine. At the same time, the brain adapts by creating more acetylcholine receptors, which may have to do with the notorious withdrawal symptoms. So, there are more receptors that are less sensitive. [11]
All of these neurotransmitters are essential for us and releasing more might seem like a good thing. However, the effects fade fast and we are left with desensitized receptors and the physical and psychological desire for more to get us back to the high we momentarily experienced. This, in addition to the negative health effects discussed suggest that nicotine harms the brain and entire body. 
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Is Tobacco or Nicotine Bad For You?</h2>
Yes, smoking tobacco stresses almost every system in the body, increasing the risk of dozens of diseases. Nicotine, which is the active ingredient in tobacco, appears to be much less harmful by itself, but still has negative long term effects. Cigarettes, a common form of smoking tobacco, are extremely harmful. There doesn’t appear to be any healthy way of smoking tobacco.
Cigarettes
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[a]
According to the National Cancer Institute, cigarettes contain more than 250 harmful chemicals, 69 of which are known carcinogens including arsenic, formaldehyde, nickel, carbon monoxide, and cyanide. [3] According to another source, smoking exposes users to over 7,000 chemicals [9]. 
Cigarettes cause disease of every system in the body causing cancers, heart disease, stroke, lung disease, diabetes, and COPD. Tar eventually coats the lungs, teeth, and throat. An estimated 16 million Americans (5%) live with a disease caused by smoking. [3] Half of those who start smoking die from it [4].
Secondhand smoke also causes stroke, lung cancer, and coronary heart disease in adults. In children, it increases the risk of sudden infant death syndrome, acute respiratory infections, middle ear disease, more severe asthma, respiratory problems and slower lung growth. [3]
Reading the appetizing Wikipedia description of how they’re made brings the point home [7]:
“Most commercial cigarettes contain a reconstituted tobacco product known as sheet, which consists of “recycled [tobacco] stems, stalks, scraps, collected dust, and floor sweepings”, to which are added glue, chemicals and fillers; the product is then sprayed with nicotine that was extracted from the tobacco scraps, and shaped into curls.”
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[g]
Looking at how commercial cigarettes are made, one might wonder why not just smoke pure tobacco cigarettes if you can? You would think this would help, however according to cancer.org, those who smoke hand-rolled cigarettes throughout their lives show even higher cancers of the throat and mouth compared to commercial cigarettes. Perhaps people who roll their own cigarettes are likely to smoke more, but the bottom line is that there doesn’t appear to be a healthy form of tobacco smoking [9].
Tobacco-Specific Nitrosamines (TSNAs) are a group of some of the most potent carcinogens known. They are present in unprocessed tobacco and rise to high levels after the curing and drying process.
Furthermore, smoking of any kind is harmful. One reason for this is that we inhale carbon monoxide, a toxic by-product of incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels like tobacco or any other plant [10]. Fine particles and carbon dioxide are also risks. For more on a similar topic, read our article on <a href="https://projectupriver.com/cannabis/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/cannabis/">cannabis</a>.
Other Tobacco Forms
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[d]
Hookah smoke contains 36 times the tar, 15 times the carbon monoxide, and 70% more nicotine than cigarette smoke does. An hour of average hookah smoking is equivalent to smoking 40 to 400 cigarettes. It seems easier to smoke more with a hookah than other forms. [9]
Cigars contain tobacco that has been dried, aged, and fermented in stages resulting in chemical and bacterial changes. This is what makes it different from cigarettes, described above. Some cigars have the equivalent amount of nicotine as an entire pack of cigarettes – the average cigar contains roughly 100 – 200mg.
Nicotine Vaporizers
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The Juul nicotine vape [e]
Nicotine vapes, like the Juul, have become popular in recent years, especially with teenagers. According to a 2017 survey, almost 3 million US high school students and 670,000 middle school students use tobacco products. 2.1 million of these are e-cigarettes. [5] In addition, use in 2019 more than doubled over 2018 [11].
Although vaporizers may not contain the 250 harmful chemicals that cigarettes do, there are thousands of flavours that use chemicals untested for toxicity when vaped [5]. Long term effects of vaporizers may be unknown for many more years. 
Vapes and e-cigarettes have faced backlash due to harm and potential harm to young users. Juul alone has faced several lawsuits pertaining to potentially misleading marketing. [5]
Pure Nicotine – Patches and Gums
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[f]
Almost all of the negative effects of cigarettes come from smoking of tobacco, and not the nicotine itself. Nicotine patches and gums don’t have these additives and release nicotine much more slowly than cigarettes. 
Still, many studies have shown that nicotine alone acts as a carcinogen and that it adversely affects the heart, reproductive system, lungs, kidneys, and nervous system. It increases oxidative stress and death of neurons, DNA damage, and reactive oxygen species – all of which accelerate aging. There is also some evidence that it changes adolescent brain development affecting intelligence. [6]
This makes sense after all as nicotine is a poison designed by plants like the tobacco plant to prevent consumption, and has even been used as a pesticide since the 17th century [6].
Click <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4363846/">here</a> for a meta-analysis of 90 studies on the effects of pure nicotine on your body.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Addiction</h2>
Nicotine is one of the most addictive recreational drugs around – about on par with even morphine, making it more addictive than cocaine, alcohol, caffeine, and THC. Heroin is the only common recreational drug we see that is more addictive. 
Nicotine’s high addiction potential causes it to have an especially strong effect on developing brains. 90% of smokers start smoking before the age of 18 [5]. 
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Can Nicotine Be Used Constructively?</h2>
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According to Wikipedia, “A 2010 meta-analysis of 41 double-blind, placebo-controlled studies concluded that nicotine or smoking had significant positive effects on aspects of fine motor abilities, alerting and orienting attention, and episodic and working memory.”
Seeing as this meta-study contained 41 well controlled studies, the results are quite statistically significant. Nicotine does enhance mental performance, though considering the half-life of 1-2 hours, nicotine will have to be taken frequently to maintain the effects unless a patch is used for extended release. Seeing as it is highly addictive, there are likely better alternatives for mental enhancement. See our article on smart drugs here, and an article dedicated to modafinil specifically here.
As nicotine becomes less tied to the negative image of cigarettes, there appears to be some potential to use it therapeutically. Some research shows that nicotine may help with cognitive and motor performance in Parkinson’s disease. Other research is looking into what benefits it may have in easing symptoms of ADHD [4]. Perhaps nicotine isn’t all bad.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>
Nicotine and tobacco products are quite unhealthy. They increase the risk of cancers, and damage every organ system in our body. Cigarette smoke exposes users and second hand users to thousands of chemicals, 69 of which are known carcinogens. No form of tobacco smoking appears healthy, and pure nicotine alone is harmful to many systems in the body, though it doesn’t have the same negative health effects as smoking.
Tobacco is one of the most widely used drugs in the world and is responsible for millions of deaths each year. Tobacco contains nicotine, a psychoactive stimulant drug that binds to receptors designed for the acetylcholine neurotransmitter. This stimulates the release of dopamine, GABA, acetylcholine, and serotonin, which makes us feel good and temporarily gives us better memory and focus. However, this also makes it highly addictive and leaves us with desensitised neurotransmitters that take months to return to normal – in addition to strong withdrawal symptoms.
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References [1] <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotine">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotine</a>  [2]<a href="https://www.discountnicotinegum.com/nicotrol_patches/faq.asp#:~:text=How%20long%20does%20does%20it,10%20hours%20after%20correct%20application">https://www.discountnicotinegum.com/nicotrol_patches/faq.asp#:~:text=How%20long%20does%20does%20it,10%20hours%20after%20correct%20application</a>.  [3] <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/health_effects/index.htm">https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/health_effects/index.htm</a>  [4] <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/is-nicotine-all-bad/">https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/is-nicotine-all-bad/</a>  [5] <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health-news/heres-how-nicotine-affects-the-body#More-teens-interested-in-e-cigarettes-">https://www.healthline.com/health-news/heres-how-nicotine-affects-the-body#More-teens-interested-in-e-cigarettes-</a>  [6] <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4363846/">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4363846/</a>  [7]<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigarette#:~:text=Most%20commercial%20cigarettes%20contain%20a,from%20the%20tobacco%20scraps%2C%20and">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigarette#:~:text=Most%20commercial%20cigarettes%20contain%20a,from%20the%20tobacco%20scraps%2C%20and</a>  [8] <a href="https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-causes/tobacco-and-cancer/is-any-type-of-smoking-safe.html#:~:text=There's%20no%20proof%20they%20are,including%20tar%20and%20carbon%20monoxide">https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-causes/tobacco-and-cancer/is-any-type-of-smoking-safe.html#:~:text=There’s%20no%20proof%20they%20are,including%20tar%20and%20carbon%20monoxide</a>. [9] <a href="https://www.medicinenet.com/hookahs_vs_cigarettes_addiction_and_health_dangers/article.htm">https://www.medicinenet.com/hookahs_vs_cigarettes_addiction_and_health_dangers/article.htm</a>  [10] <a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/the-health-hazards-of-roll-your-own-cigarettes-2825284#:~:text=Many%20smokers%20believe%20that%20rolling,rolled%20cigarettes%20are%20no%20exception">https://www.verywellmind.com/the-health-hazards-of-roll-your-own-cigarettes-2825284#:~:text=Many%20smokers%20believe%20that%20rolling,rolled%20cigarettes%20are%20no%20exception</a>.  [11] <a href="https://elemental.medium.com/your-brain-on-nicotine-668c0b6a079e">https://elemental.medium.com/your-brain-on-nicotine-668c0b6a079e</a>  [12] https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/tobacco-market
Images [a] <a href="https://consumer.healthday.com/media-library/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yMzYzMTY0My9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYzNDA1NjcxMX0.5rLDFFRoON3YEfLB5AsbcOcvUCv-IHMOhq6uT6odX-g/image.jpg?width=1245&quality=85&coordinates=0%2C74%2C0%2C75&height=700">https://consumer.healthday.com/media-library/eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpbWFnZSI6Imh0dHBzOi8vYXNzZXRzLnJibC5tcy8yMzYzMTY0My9vcmlnaW4uanBnIiwiZXhwaXJlc19hdCI6MTYzNDA1NjcxMX0.5rLDFFRoON3YEfLB5AsbcOcvUCv-IHMOhq6uT6odX-g/image.jpg?width=1245&quality=85&coordinates=0%2C74%2C0%2C75&height=700</a>  [b] <a href="https://teens.drugabuse.gov/blog/post/why-nicotine-so-addictive">https://teens.drugabuse.gov/blog/post/why-nicotine-so-addictive</a>  [c] <a href="https://image.made-in-china.com/2f0j00pgbYauqcuIkz/99-9-1000mg-Ml-Liquid-Nicotine-Pure-Nic.jpg">https://image.made-in-china.com/2f0j00pgbYauqcuIkz/99-9-1000mg-Ml-Liquid-Nicotine-Pure-Nic.jpg</a>  [d] <a href="https://cdn.the-scientist.com/assets/articleNo/65286/aImg/30158/tobacco-plants-l.jpg">https://cdn.the-scientist.com/assets/articleNo/65286/aImg/30158/tobacco-plants-l.jpg</a>  [e] <a href="https://www.ft.com/__origami/service/image/v2/images/raw/http%3A%2F%2Fcom.ft.imagepublish.upp-prod-us.s3.amazonaws.com%2F6b1f4d88-b69e-11e9-8a88-aa6628ac896c?fit=scale-down&source=next&width=700">https://www.ft.com/__origami/service/image/v2/images/raw/http%3A%2F%2Fcom.ft.imagepublish.upp-prod-us.s3.amazonaws.com%2F6b1f4d88-b69e-11e9-8a88-aa6628ac896c?fit=scale-down&source=next&width=700</a> [f] <a href="https://www.nicodermcq.com/amp/img/nd-prod-dosage-mb.png">https://www.nicodermcq.com/amp/img/nd-prod-dosage-mb.png</a>  [g] <a href="https://www.illinoispoisoncenter.org/CMSPages/GetAzureFile.aspx?path=~%5Cipc%5Cmedia%5Cillinois-poison-center%5Cmca%20images%5Cistock-1133345196.jpg&hash=4cfaa16c10688bf24eb1b7947e8b1977914c7be783aff62d23b77aa33d6e95f1">https://www.illinoispoisoncenter.org/CMSPages/GetAzureFile.aspx?path=~\ipc\media\illinois-poison-center\mca%20images\istock-1133345196.jpg&hash=4cfaa16c10688bf24eb1b7947e8b1977914c7be783aff62d23b77aa33d6e95f1</a>  [h] <a href="https://archives.drugabuse.gov/sites/default/files/images/colorbox/receptors.jpg">https://archives.drugabuse.gov/sites/default/files/images/colorbox/receptors.jpg</a>
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<title>5. Caffeine: Natures Safe Stimulant</title>
<link>https://projectupriver.com/caffeine-natures-safe-stimulant/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=caffeine-natures-safe-stimulant</link>
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<dc:creator><![CDATA[UpRiverGreg]]></dc:creator>
<pubDate>Fri, 30 Apr 2021 20:14:00 +0000</pubDate>
<category><![CDATA[Drugs]]></category>
<guid isPermaLink="false">https://projectupriver.com/?p=2819</guid>
<description><![CDATA[TL;DR: Caffeine is a powerful, yet quite safe, stimulant drug that functions by blocking adenosine, an inhibitory neurotransmitter, leading to feelings of wakefulness and alertness.]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div id="bsf_rt_marker">
TL;DR: Caffeine is a powerful, yet quite safe, stimulant drug that functions by blocking adenosine, an inhibitory neurotransmitter, leading to feelings of wakefulness and alertness.
Let us just start by saying that, we are not doctors. This article is not medical advice, nor should it be treated as such. This article is purely for educational purposes. Finally, we do not condone the use of any illegal substances nor the use of any prescription drug without a say-so from your physician.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Intro</h2>
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There’s no better way to start your day than with a nice hot cup of coffee. One sip of that bitter, black liquid and it’s off to the races. From construction sites to poorly lit office buildings, caffeine is the 21st century workers drug of choice. But what is it about this strange little chemical, found in beans and leaves, that helps the world keep turning?
This article will provide an overview of caffeine, including what it is, how it works, its effects when consumed, as well as a few health concerns to be aware of. So pour yourself a big, steaming cup of coffee and join us as we delve into the stimulating world of caffeine. 
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What is Caffeine?</h2>
Caffeine is a popular stimulant drug (read more about drug classifications in our intro to drugs <a href="https://projectupriver.com/1-what-are-drugs/" data-type="post" data-id="2447">here</a>) regularly consumed by many across the world. In fact, caffeine is the most widely used psychoactive drug in the world, with over 10 million tonnes of coffee beans being consumed globally in 2020 [1].
Caffeine is a naturally occurring substance that is found in the fruits, nuts and seeds of many equatorial plants. Caffeine is used by plants to both defend against herbivores eating them, as well as preventing the seeds of other plants from germinating, thus reducing competition. 
The most common source of caffeine is from coffee, however it is also abundantly found in many other drinks such as tea, pop and energy drinks. Caffeine can also be found in higher doses in supplements, which usually come in pill or powder form. 
Consuming caffeine leads to increased feelings of wakefulness, alertness and focus. As such, many people consume caffeine in the morning to shake off any sleepiness left over from the previous night and jump start their day. Some find it hard to even start their day before they’ve had their cup (or three) of coffee.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">How Does Caffeine Work?</h2>
When you are awake, the firing of neurons in your brain produces a by-product known as adenosine. Adenosine is a useful chemical to have, as it helps to move energy throughout our cells by forming molecules like adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) [2]. Adenosine widens blood vessels and helps to regulate heart rhythm. It has also been found to be an effective natural painkiller. 
Adenosine is classified as an inhibitory neurotransmitter. This means that when adenosine binds to adenosine receptors it depresses our central nervous system, slowing down many processes involved in wakefulness. As such, the higher levels of adenosine, the more tired you will feel.
The only way for our bodies to get rid of adenosine is to sleep. As our neurons fire throughout the day, more and more adenosine builds up, making us feel more and more tired. This build up, and subsequent need to clear it with sleep, has been proposed as one of the theories as to <a href="https://projectupriver.com/why-do-we-sleep/">why we sleep</a>. The chart below shows the amount of adenosine in various parts of a sleep deprived person’s brain. You can see the adenosine levels rising as the person becomes more and more sleep deprived, only being reduced when they are finally allowed to sleep (i.e. recover).
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/9RywILDMyqggv1fc66llGi16988_ffN61e8r02yKVeHXVefkkirGZY0KzHwNyQi7uNBId4IlQ3pAe9FJSuRrTvtvWNzn4K9eMo8PvXf2Gs2i4jkJNd8qCz4ih0AOpRnmORNVpibK" alt=""/></figure></div>
So, we’ve established that the amount of adenosine in someone’s body is correlated with feelings of tiredness. From this, it would stand to reason that reducing or preventing the production or uptake of adenosine would help to reduce feelings of tiredness. This is where caffeine comes in. 
Caffeine and adenosine have very similar chemical structures. You can see a side by side comparison of each molecule below. Note how the components highlighted in green are almost identical. 
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/1h44BcKl2pg_26kYY6i18E0vWY4x47YaA_43ofZyXgI2NMfGDT2Cpth3t5pS6n10g5BnMHzICOECGhgGvSo_LB67_Fu_N5Pt5D1npwc2K4jWFg7W6E-7RZ4NxLRbsiHD0qMI7FzZ" alt="" width="364" height="214"/></figure></div>
This similarity allows caffeine to bind to the adenosine receptors in your brain. Now when adenosine is produced from brain activity, it has no receptors to bind to, as they are all clogged up with caffeine. This prevents your brain from “seeing” that there is adenosine present, so instead of slowing down, neural activity actually begins to speed up. 
This increase in neural activity makes your brain think that something is up, and that there may be some sort of emergency going on, so it releases hormones that signal your adrenal glands to start producing adrenaline (epinephrine). This release of adrenaline makes you feel much more alert and energized, as well as having the following effects on the body [3]. 
<ul class="wp-block-list"><li>Your pupils dilate.</li><li>The airway opens up (this is why people suffering from severe asthma attacks are sometimes injected with epinephrine).</li><li>Your heart beats faster.</li><li>Blood vessels on the surface constrict to slow blood flow from cuts and increase blood flow to muscles.</li><li>Blood pressure rises.</li><li>Blood flow to the stomach slows.</li><li>The liver releases sugar into the bloodstream for extra energy.</li><li>Muscles tighten up, ready for action.</li></ul>
In summary, caffeine functions by essentially tricking your body into thinking it is less tired than it is through the blocking of adenosine receptors. This in turn makes your body think there is some sort of emergency, prompting it to release adrenaline, making you feel alert and energized. 
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Effects of Caffeine</h2>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/USWa0mJLK4rW-QReq-tLvU0K1AV2hgygGooawhkt_mHmHF9Q8l6X5kZvUWLzPl2LpuRPVAHUCwYs6qcpB8YSOkuu3bSg8cz_NhZU82B3ChVetif80ggqWz2C2jSO6yKxy8EpMjqN" alt=""/></figure></div>
Along with reducing effects of fatigue and drowsiness, caffeine has been shown to increase both mental and physical performance. At normal doses it has been shown to improve reaction time, wakefulness, and motor coordination, while having inconsistent effects on learning and memory. It can delay or prevent sleep, and increases performance while sleep deprived. Tired workers have been found to make less mistakes while using caffeine. [1]
Caffeine also improves athletic performance, both in anaerobic and aerobic scenarios (read more on anaerobic vs aerobic systems <a href="https://projectupriver.com/intro-to-kinesiology/#AerobicVsAnaerobic">here</a>). Moderate doses can improve sprint times, cycling and running times and endurance. It also increases the basal metabolic rate in adults. Caffeine is helpful when lifting weights as well, improving muscular strength and power and reducing perceived exertion. While a reduction in perceived exertion does not directly increase the amount of weight lifted, it has been shown to greatly improve performance during resistance training, except for when exercising to exhaustion. [1]
These effects of caffeine are most prevalent 1 hour after consumption and generally taper off after around 3-4 hours. [1]
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Health Concerns of Caffeine</h2>
In general, caffeine is considered quite a safe and harmless drug which is in part why it is so popular and widely used.  However, at higher doses and with extended use some health complications do become prevalent. Some health concerns involved with caffeine are summarized below.
Negative Psychological Effects
Many users of caffeine experience mild, yet unpleasant symptoms from consuming caffeine, including mild anxiety, jitteriness, insomnia, increased sleep latency, and reduced coordination. People with pre-existing anxiety disorders are especially prone to experiencing anxiety while using caffeine. High caffeine doses over 300mg are positively correlated with inducing and worsening anxiety. [1]
Fortunately, as a tolerance to caffeine begins to form, most of these symptoms seem to disappear, so the negative psychological effects are really only a problem for irregular users. Interestingly, as tolerance increases, sensitization to some of the positive effects of caffeine, such as feelings of alertness and wellbeing, begins to occur. This means that the more someone uses caffeine, the more powerful these positive effects will become [1]. 
Addiction/Dependence
Essentially every modern business has at least one, the insufferable “Don’t talk to me until I’ve had my coffee” type (I’m looking at you, Barbara). While you may think they’re just being obnoxious, there is some real justification as to why they feel that way.  
While the addiction mechanism of caffeine is disputed, as in some cases consuming high amounts of caffeine actually leads to aversion rather than addiction, there has been evidence for clear dependence and withdrawal mechanisms as a result of high caffeine consumption.
Symptoms of caffeine withdrawal begin to appear 24 hours after the reduction of regular caffeine usage. Withdrawal can appear in users who regularly consume at least 100mg of caffeine per day (about 1 – 1.5 cups of coffee), with users who consume more experiencing more intense withdrawal. Symptoms include difficulty concentrating, depressed mood/irritability, flu-like symptoms, headache, and fatigue [1]. For those trying to kick a caffeine habit, it may be worthwhile to slowly reduce your caffeine intake over time, rather than fully stopping all at once, cold-turkey.
Overdose
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/bTHLE3mUu8no0rPFPwCEAQP4GIOuZ9y2kwLpBhqzT6Bw4VCc-6RYM3IbdHbOqs9MrekIkLkzsyXIIPZmjfC3DTVqPuTsLe_hh7YjitwPibfsGzL4GIu1onHUtpb3aQ34SPjjwMFD" alt="" width="458" height="501"/></figure></div>
Overdosing on caffeine is quite difficult and uncommon, as the active dose is much lower than the lethal dose. Caffeine is considered lethal at doses higher than 10g per day, which is quite a lot considering your average cup of coffee has about 80-175mg of caffeine. This means that in order to poison yourself, you’d need to down about 50-100 cups of coffee to do so. However, it is worth noting that with dietary supplements of pure caffeine, a lethal dose can be contained in a tablespoon. [1]
Caffeine overdoses do happen from time to time, but in most cases it is from the intentional overconsumption of medication or supplements. This means that your average coffee/energy drink enjoyer really has not much to worry about, in regards to overdosing. 
Children
While research is limited on the effects of caffeine on children, it is generally recommended that children consume little to no caffeine. While doses under 400mg are generally considered harmless for children, doses in excess can cause physiological, psychological and behavioral issues. [1]
A common urban myth is that caffeine stunts growth in children, however there is no scientific evidence to support this. 
Children are generally already endless little balls of energy, so there really isn’t much reasoning to give them a drug that makes them even more energetic.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>
Caffeine is a safe, yet powerful drug. It blocks the receptors of adenosine, an inhibitory neurotransmitter, leading to increased feelings of energy and alertness. Using caffeine has been shown to increase both mental and physical performance. Although some mild negative symptoms may occur when using it, the chance of overdosing from regular usage of caffeine is slim to none, so if you need a little boost go ahead and pour yourself a nice cup of coffee. Just try to not go overboard as some mild, yet uncomfortable, withdrawal symptoms can begin to come through at higher doses.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter size-large"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="152" src="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Greg-Stamp-e1615389172555.png" alt="" class="wp-image-1931"/></figure></div>
References: [1]  <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caffeine">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caffeine</a> [2] <a href="https://www.verywellhealth.com/adenosine-and-sleep-3015337">https://www.verywellhealth.com/adenosine-and-sleep-3015337</a> [3] <a href="https://science.howstuffworks.com/caffeine4.htm">https://science.howstuffworks.com/caffeine4.htm</a>
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<title>6. What Does the Science Say About MDMA?</title>
<link>https://projectupriver.com/what-does-the-science-say-about-mdma/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=what-does-the-science-say-about-mdma</link>
<comments>https://projectupriver.com/what-does-the-science-say-about-mdma/#respond</comments>
<dc:creator><![CDATA[UpRiverSpencer]]></dc:creator>
<pubDate>Mon, 03 May 2021 20:06:00 +0000</pubDate>
<category><![CDATA[Drugs]]></category>
<guid isPermaLink="false">https://projectupriver.com/?p=2803</guid>
<description><![CDATA[TL;DR: As some information out there can be contradictory, ensure you investigate the effects and side-effects of this “love drug” when using it for recreation or for therapy.]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div id="bsf_rt_marker">
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/EY5a0aOBu7iYBhn63U3WNXzJsQU9ath2ekCfx4375M3B4UFaCwQbAlXtNTjgzDVAz-_60rW5jgN7licqaULZkP3cI8LnCjSlb5c4YiBsz7691ODroviUqhOhQGVKOi9FIgGi5Tlh" alt=""/></figure></div>
TL;DR: As some information out there can be contradictory, ensure you investigate the effects and side-effects of this “love drug” when using it for recreation or for therapy.
Let us just start by saying that, we are not doctors. This article is not medical advice, nor should it be treated as such. This article is purely for educational purposes. Finally, we do not condone the use of any illegal substances nor the use of any prescription drug without a say-so from your physician.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Introduction</h2>
Welcome back, biohacker. Today we will be discussing arguably the most popular drug amongst DJ’s and ravers alike. This substance is, of course, the notorious love drug: 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine, Molly, Ecstasy, MDMA, or simply M. 
In this article we will be covering the history of MDMA, legal classification of MDMA, the ubiquitousness of its usage, the harms involved and how to minimize those harms, and the new and cutting edge uses for MDMA in clinical settings. With that said, let’s jump right into it, shall we?
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What Is MDMA? </h2>
MDMA was originally developed in 1912 by The Merck Group in Germany [1]. While the reasons for M’s creation are not entirely known, potentially as a therapeutic, potentially as an accident (the stories vary), what we do know is that MDMA rose to fame as a popular recreational  substance very quickly. All over especially the Western and European world, M can be easily found in nightclubs, at raves, at parties, and in bars. 
<figure class="wp-block-image"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/2S3-Mxm_iXLBMdRPvRlWTX3URFm53mu62_Fz8gyogP2DHkz5TRcjVKbRNGBWvmhG6esySUvmz9KXFEDWjpH5kkpPIQ7_APYHvnLOIfrbhs31Dj1I6vrFhwo1h5UtQNTUTb0OpuOs" alt=""/></figure>
MDMA is usually taken in pill form and is widely taken to induce several pleasurable sensations.  While we will delve into what these sensations are later in the article, we will first talk about how MDMA brings about a temporary change in one’s neurochemistry. 
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">How Does MDMA Work?</h2>
MDMA enters the body and crosses the blood-brain barrier in about 15-45 minutes, resulting in the onset of initial noticeable effects [2]. A simplistic description of how MDMA works is as follows:
In your brain, there are several kinds of neurotransmitters. Each one of these chemicals are released at very particular times from one synapse to the next in order to affect the rest of the brain and the body as a whole. The neurotransmitter that MDMA takes a particular effect on is serotonin. While serotonin is responsible for many functions in the body, it is notoriously known to control your sense of happiness and is attached to all relevant sensations, as we will detail for you shortly.
How MDMA actually works is by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin [3]. 
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/_OcU_n7G4wWoFyoKeDkcVBrkjmRvnp3ZJGfL1hgUVOoExJ62uPKtZHMgaQENXZSx--vTAf2duD6PYJx4y-K4CNBHsXMj9ZaEeHb-Ixc-59oBLnFi1YpTmB38S8bJrd8vLDTRiE4L" alt=""/></figure></div>
Essentially, neuronal synapses are sending the neurotransmitter serotonin down the line to pass on information down the brain. But when you take MDMA, it puts something of a ‘cap’ on the reuptake receptor and it stops the following synapses from picking up that serotonin. 
Importantly, the neurons that are transmitting the serotonin don’t just halt; it’s just that the receiving neurons have been temporarily impaired from doing their job. Finally, when all serotonin breaks through the cap that MDMA has placed on the receptor, your brain gets a huge flood of the neurotransmitter, and you get massive waves of positive sensations.
As an analogy, think of a dam. Imagine that there is a steady flow of water passing through. Now, imagine that you quickly erect a wall of stone to block the water’s passage, held together by superglue. Eventually, the water on one side will build and build to a point where the new superglued wall simply cannot contain the pressure of the water any longer. The water will eventually burst through, and for a small while exude a higher water pressure on the rest of the dam than before the wall was built. This, in a sense, is how MDMA operates on the neurotransmitter serotonin.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/d9bQvjzuGtaA-uMJbuZiwMxrn1c6byFtqX1fzWYJS9aluCGbo9iEzQb__NyKWIFxSzm4318nZRp_GesdHyCdDittubORnnZ4nGmnNohudm8mnKOCPryE6TW_fM6BL1cO34qnL-1R" alt=""/></figure></div>
NOTE: It should be mentioned that MDMA does also operate both on the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine to a degree, but primarily modulates the effects of serotonin in the brain [4].
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Usage and Legality</h2>
In terms of usage, MDMA is a relatively popular drug, especially in the United States. It is estimated that in the USA alone, 2 million MDMA pills are smuggled in illegally every single day [5]. As the street price of a single ecstasy pill usually runs in the price range of about $20 – $40 USD, that, on the higher end, makes the MDMA market alone worth $29,000,000,000 USD annually. Yes, that reads 29 Billion. 
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/Llatz4F-Ytzj9NyO5I4sOlEW_jZmUh9XQWlJrF0kDzqptzf-W2abolQYdW28QhkvWpHxPtEZ4Hd8sJs5bu1ZnzyvKy7LrsqsgldqKpryr5FWPVuj0OmvOWKJOnIfOlKfR9QO2knS" alt=""/></figure></div>
(766kg of pure MDMA being confiscated in record-breaking bust.)
Conversely, some studies would report the opposite findings regarding MDMA’s popularity. Consider what drugpolicy.org has to say regarding MDMA’s usage:
Among the general population, MDMA use is not very common. According to the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, only 0.3 percent of people aged 12 and older reported using “ecstasy” in the past month, 1 percent reported using it in the past year, and 6.8 percent reported using at least once in their lifetime…[6]
Now, while this would point to MDMA not coming close to the popularity mentioned formerly in this article, it is important to remember a couple of things:
<ol class="wp-block-list"><li>It’s difficult to know the genuine number of people who actually use MDMA given this sort of epidemiological (self-reported/surveyed) study because it requires people to be honest about their use of a Schedule 1 substance to an authority (legality covered just below).</li></ol>
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="2"><li>It could be the case that the people who do use it, use a lot of it. Making the drug not necessarily popular in terms of numbers, but popular in terms of total amount consumed per annum. </li></ol>
In terms of legality, both in Canada and the USA, MDMA is indeed given a Schedule I classification. This classification is reserved for drugs and substances, which are considered to have a high potential for abuse and are deemed to have no strict medical use. Possession of such substances can result in a 7 year imprisonment; and persons found to be trafficking these substances, can face imprisonment all the way up to a lifetime sentence. [7] Serious stuff…
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/suVvPVvx0ZODmYF-RlIKhQrC1X-Zt7XOfBYhA0KoeTqfgBlAjTRtpP-fEo4foHmWwB5bc8WKE1pcIcYBMrGKJpQ0-rOnbzn6Q68d9LZt0rmPy0nZfyVcK8Y4L003mpEDReh_gO4g" alt=""/></figure></div>
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What Does MDMA FEEL Like?</h2>
Okay, so now for the 29 Billion dollar question, what does this stuff dubbed “ecstasy” actually feel like?! (We will delve into the compound’s street names and their significance in the following section).
Plainly, in users, MDMA induces the following effects on the mind and body [8]:
<ul class="wp-block-list"><li>Euphoria – a sense of general well-being and happiness</li><li>Increased self-confidence, sociability, and perception of facilitated communication</li><li>Entactogenic effects—increased empathy or feelings of closeness with others and oneself</li><li>Dilated pupils</li><li>Relaxation and reduced anxiety</li><li>Increased emotionality</li><li>A sense of inner peace</li><li>Mild hallucination (generally on larger doses)</li><li>Enhanced sensation, perception, or sexuality</li><li>Altered sense of time</li></ul>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/_Fs92XVjhaf8Pu9gzLG_NlgQjjyv44ov8oSgSv5Qg7ecdDNr2I4HS9rHdM37raveFkSRxOH5_YqXaosdkVyBmXzsq0AMNjfOJm16EE5mdpdm_MnobKCnRSxnK6kFF9liqzpUFTbV" alt="" width="369" height="276"/></figure></div>
Additionally, the following short term “side-effects” may also be present in someone under the influence of the substance [9]:
<ul class="wp-block-list"><li>Dehydration</li><li>Hyperthermia – overheating</li><li>Bruxism (grinding and clenching of the teeth)</li><li>Increased wakefulness or insomnia</li><li>Increased perspiration and sweating</li><li>Increased heart rate and blood pressure</li><li>Increased psychomotor activity</li><li>Loss of appetite</li><li>Nausea and vomiting</li><li>Diarrhea</li><li>Erectile dysfunction</li><li>Visual and auditory hallucinations (rarely, and only on high doses)</li></ul>
Now, some people may be asking about the more severe ramifications of taking this substance as afterall, people have died on it, right?
Well, yes. They have. Let’s look into this. 
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Overdose, Dangers & Identity Crisis</h2>
It seems that both the supply and demand are decently elevated for this substance in the party scene and on the street. However, unfortunately, this love drug has a bit of a sinister identity problem. Unlike cocaine and crystal meth, for example, where a user is generally looking for the “cleanest and purest stuff they can get,” MDMA is oftentimes intentionally mixed with other substances. 
Where as Molly, MDMA, and M all refer the the pure chemical structure of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine, Ecstasy on the other hand actually refers to the intentionally mixed substance of MDMA and either speed (amphetamine), ephedrine, or caffeine – all of which dramatically increase the dangerous potential ramifications of M’s ingestion. [10]
When we shift over to MDMA in its pure form, the discussion gets a little difficult to pinpoint in terms of fatalities. Generally speaking, fatal ingestion with MDMA in the system is typically compounded by hyponatremia (too little sodium in the system), hyperthermia, or dehydration. [11]  
Basically, this means that when people are taking this stuff, either they are not drinking enough water, they are drinking too much water, or are over exerting themselves. To be entirely frank, these do all seem like situations one can easily run into when raving or clubbing for hours…
To compare MDMA’s general safety to other substances, check out how it compares to both alcohol and tobacco use:
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/SuGuX4H-y0EUSHh0TUoMETOVL0vDhAVx0PGskDsThVKj5bdkh-hBcDy7bOfSZHEpLTJuZJBU--KCXsuaAiJL5KggI4lmtR6-T5nz9qYSNgMIDVS_v7tFkG1Em9ER-gxs0eSBsibv" alt=""/></figure></div>
(Image taken from the <a href="https://thedea.org/mdma-risks-science-and-statistics-technical-faq/mdma-molly-ecstasy-use-and-death-rate-statistics/">DEA database</a>.)
Furthermore, compare MDMA’s fatality rate to prescription medications (MDMA is a psychostimulant):
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/p69COjz9XzdvnC03EXz3GJUSPXBUfLSYWIgMDhUiRb8CZ83hG2ybVHYLckkF7BvEKoAJ1UHdSovmI4Z_Z0YTYcIz6SIMcxv0cKO85dPkZYBZnF3lnsFJjoaOlHJadqZIKsbvI0xj" alt=""/></figure></div>
As you can see from the images above, while the number of deaths from MDMA are very few, fatality from MDMA does still tragically occur. Moreover, we are in a difficult place when it comes to identifying why these deaths occur. 
The issues are plainly as follows:
<ol class="wp-block-list"><li>MDMA and Ecstasy are very rarely, if ever, distinguished between in government reported statistics. While MDMA does, of course, have its risks, it’s important to note that amphetamine and caffeine by themselves (which appear in ecstasy but not in pure MDMA) have displayed the potential for lethal overdose when ingested by themselves. [12]</li></ol>
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="2"><li>The physical venue or setting of these deaths are not conducive to regular health-maintenance and often call for people to be away from water for long periods of time.</li></ol>
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="3"><li>The energy some users enjoy as a result of the drug leads to massive overexertion, which in turn leads to overheating and dehydration. </li></ol>
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="4"><li>A user who fails to monitor their water intake may overindulge and deplete the sodium in their system resulting in hyponatremia.</li></ol>
These 4 factors leave us in a precarious situation. However, as a reminder, MDMA can still cause fatality, but the degree to which it does so, is still shrouded in mystery. Consider the following statistic from the DEA:
“[In 2001] out of a total of 76 deaths where MDMA was detected, only 9 involved MDMA by itself. “ [13]
Unfortunately, the setting and hydration of these poor individuals were not recorded in the DEA’s statistics. We do not know if they were sitting calmly in their living rooms with adequate water and good company, or jumping for 8 hours straight in a poorly ventilated room listening to EDM…We also have no idea how much these people had in their systems.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/VeKFJqv8Ph1pXsRH_no7wBwAfRFKqrYwvDyy4GkG3OpwH6x9CLyXE1todw8dpemCrtYUFpFqD6rWu85-ViNxSwPvR0YG38EmW_gBylkxedLod3Zha0rOSErHSeZG4DalXR5Dgq11" alt=""/></figure></div>
While pointing out these issues is not an attempt to encourage the use of MDMA, we are trying to point to the idea that perhaps there is a safer way to try this substance if proper planning is taken into consideration.
NOTE – Long Term Effects: While the long-term effects of MDMA are not well understood, there are studies that have converse indications. For example, click <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/how-long-does-molly-stay-in-your-system">here</a> to read about how MDMA can only be detected in the body for 5 days after use, and click <a href="https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/mdma-ecstasy-abuse/what-are-mdmas-effects-on-brain">here</a> to read about how there may be traces for 7 years in monkey trials. As the results thus far are conflicting, we recommend that you do further research on your own to determine which way the literature more heavily points.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What Does MDMA Look Like?</h2>
When it comes to what MDMA looks like, you’re probably used to seeing a little pill with cute smiley faces or adorable rabbits on them. Unfortunately, these pills, also known as “pressed caps” are usually not just MDMA – they’re usually cut with something.  As they’re in their pressed form, they can be very difficult to test for purity and so it is usually safely assumed that these guys are Ecstacy pills and not pure MDMA. 
Conversely, MDMA is usually a whitish, brownish, and sometimes orangish power that can come in rock form or crystal form. When looking for impurities, generally there will be different colours and the whole substance will not look uniform. Below are pictures to illustrate the difference between ecstasy and MDMA:
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/i1zWpN9ksijcu55u0CIY7QC7zOiyNbIfDetuZ2RW32mpz1z_L4LhEjg0R5f-UURAZODC2fMx4oGaccFyjTYxvLVT1MDuoIDYglTvenX6McBByjZCxVVRLs2PqjZTTc5aC0q2wXiM" alt=""/></figure></div>
As you can see above, there must be at least 1 additive given that these pills are entirely different colours…
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/CYcuuyYv5I3-7bFc44Ar-aeyeR5R19TOvLrdk9EvmTFFhAfIWgWSZov3kKFPQ_9noCGcUpVWx1F15e4vsEjwSr-Dj8f7LNQMk8rL6qkvIA5-FS6pw7iAmJNgwIV4Cm-kysw3GYp9" alt=""/></figure></div>
Here we see a relative consistency in the colour of each granule. This is what pure MDMA looks like.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Proper Planning</h2>
Okay, so you’ve decided that you want to try this stuff (which, again UpRiver does not recommend…), and you want to make sure you do it as safely as possible. This will require a few things:
<ul class="wp-block-list"><li>Gram scale</li><li>Paper and pen</li><li><a href="https://bunkpolice.com/">Drug test kit</a></li><li>Predetermined amount of drinking water</li><li>Timer/watch</li></ul>
First thing you’re going to want to do is test the purity of what you have. Visual inspection is a good first step, but will NEVER be enough to determine if what you have in your possession is what you think it is. To actually test, you must follow a process by using the solution provided to you in your test kit. Ideally, you will have a multistage test kit, as these are the most accurate but cost a few pretty pennies more (just pay for it dudes, this is your health and safety we’re talking about). Multistage test kits help ensure against the most potential impurities of the substance.
Once the test kit reveals that what you have does not contain impurities and is actually pure MDMA, you will want to weigh out on your gram scale exactly how much you’re going to do. As this substance is strong, changing by even .01 of a gram can change your experience. Typically a starting dose is about 0.13g but this can vary from person to person. We use 0.13g as a benchmark as this is the amount given to PTSD participants in <a href="https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01211405">clinical trials.</a>
Next you’re going to get your water ready. We recommend drawing lines on your water bottle with a time beside each line to ensure that you’re drinking an appropriate amount of water during your experience. This way you can avoid the two most popular issues with MDMA use: too much water, and too little. Use your watch or your phone to set alarms to ensure that when that hour rolls around (which, it will sooner than you think), you drink the amount of water you’ve set for yourself.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter is-resized"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/FPi_a4PQ1JCZrzat3JpZ6wXQCu4BYya3oB-yARX8GJijw8CJ0gfHJk4odS4w1pMtkexoSoFmdl-ziDRzCYMXh8zFiqdxERvKowPh5ApuMGhIlPC33N6T679wPPNl6mvvlklh1Guj" alt="" width="-266" height="-355"/></figure></div>
Next, just as you ingest, write down on a piece of paper exactly how much you took, and at what time. Now, this really serves 2 purposes. The first purpose is so that if you do decide to redose (which UpRiver DOES NOT recommend…), you have a gauge of where you are in terms of timing and total intake. Second, and more practically, if something for some reason were to go awry, you have the exact information a medical professional would need to give you the most appropriate assistance.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Afterwards</h2>
After your experience, for the next 1-7 days, you may be struck by a state of either one of two things: the hangover, or the afterglow. While these two do not generally make an appearance in what little clinical research is out there, many users on online forums report a well known dichotomy that affects users on an individual basis. 
The Afterglow:
If you’re lucky, for the next week or so after your experience with MDMA, you will feel a residual happiness. A sort of air about you and a gratitude for all things and people in your life. You will feel generally optimistic and emotionally refreshed, as if having lifted a burden that you carried on your shoulders for some time. This is a really nice place to be and if you experience this, you are on the luckier side of folks.
The Hangover:
If you’re not so lucky, for a week or so after your experience with MDMA, you may have what people sometimes analogize to a hangover. You might not be in the mood to see people, generally feel a little down, and experience signs of irritability. Fortunately, these effects rarely last longer than a few days, but during those few days, you may just need to take some time for yourself, focus on your <a href="https://projectupriver.com/intro-to-meditation/">meditation practice</a>, and eat wholesome, <a href="https://projectupriver.com/category/nutrition/">brain supporting foods</a>.
<figure class="wp-block-image"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/IBHkzymlE76Jo4SB-R1NVVGtST-pzq7k0XyXY-ZqvoJU6BC4Kp34SJCvewDM6CN3BR17udKxPkjg-etgdMgCeBIYLPfHbmB8yCI5K21Poq1NmIEQnUOJkgl-z7Eg2a6vsBGUntnZ" alt=""/></figure>
Any way you swing though, most users look back on their experience with fond eyes. We are reminded by users online that we live in a fantastically interesting era where not only do we have the opportunity to see life from new perspectives with the help of substances, but we also have the tools to ensure our health and wellness in doing so.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Future and Clinical Trials</h2>
While there have been very few studies done on MDMA when compared to other clinically prescribed SSRI’s, there does seem to be some interesting stuff coming down the pipeline. Many of these studies include promising effects on PTSD, and depression. [14] Additionally, there are even clinics coming out like <a href="https://maps.org/research/mdma/ptsd/phase3">this one</a> that boast the benefits of their MDMA-assisted therapy and cognitive behavioural therapy regimens. 
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/oDmxvmqLnwl-c4bXSSaPXvm74aTzCjATI_nB5bd_3-WObKjt7hSbWSBINprpK1ctHu76aiZ6EcaHxcoHQpXvCaOjsrsqGvnCztHxGmUnnH_A4JkrNWOSfyforBgyXKBlnWI8njdn" alt=""/></figure></div>
Despite a legalization time still being shrouded by the future, more and more research is coming out displaying real therapeutic uses for this compound. On the other hand, until we understand a little bit better how MDMA fully operates in the brain and its mechanisms of action, legalization seems dubious. 
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Authors Motivation</h2>
I’ll come clean. I’ve tried the stuff. The first time, somebody put it in my drink when I was DJ’ing at a house party and while REALLY NOT FUC%$NG COOL to do to someone (especially because you don’t know if they’re on meditation or anything like that), I’ll admit that I had one of the best nights of my life… The lights felt warmer, the music sounded better, and I felt like everybody was very much vibing with whatever music I spun. Maybe I was reading the crowd better on the stuff, or maybe I was just on drugs… I knew at least one was for sure.
Anyway, fast forward and I have done MDMA a couple more times since that first unexpected night. Both times were with my best friend and we did it on an introspective endeavor. We just sat and talked and allowed the pleasant feelings of euphoria to wash over us. We spoke about our appreciation for one another, we spoke about past memories, and we spoke about what the future might hold. 
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/PeuBXHa_1kExtTTprLXrfnOIDkgnR3gtqAzUFhXSjDT2lW5r9zxyfi0YOIS_fYbpEoPehhsUktV98mClAujs0eeVogYUBNMT-zCr07dLzRVMxvuPbmkwr9olYOS2aDdKAPoTmw4O" alt=""/></figure></div>
One intriguing thing about MDMA, as I always describe it to people, is that it allows people to have a conversation from a default place of happiness and empathy. What I mean is this: suppose you and your buddy or partner are arguing. Naturally it gets confrontational and you accuse one another of doing or being something that is a hair out of line. As this happens, your demeanour inevitably changes towards one more hostile. This is where MDMA changes things. 
You don’t get angrier; you dont get more hostile. You become an amazing listener and an amazing conversationalist. You’re able to sort out your issues from a place where nobody takes things to heart and you can totally evaluate what is being said almost objectively. You tap into a level of empathy that is normally not there. Very cool stuff.
Anyway, I’ve had a fascination with this substance for some time now and while I cannot say that I’ve done it at a party or rave (by design), I have done it for the sake of sitting and talking with my close circle in attempts – all successful – to get even closer with them. While there are real dangers to taking this stuff, especially if done improperly, I am personally very grateful to be able to have the know-how to use this substance responsibly and on rare occasions to genuinely improve my life.
I will add, once more, that this is not a common practice for me. I do it quite sparingly and any time could be the last time I ever decide to take MDMA. But so long as proper precautions are taken (as mentioned above in this article), I am sure that I will enjoy more rich experiences with people that I genuinely love, and continue to deepen my appreciation for them on varying planes of consciousness. Again, maybe in those times I’m just on drugs and perceiving my getting closer with them or whatever, but what I can tell you is that even when the effects have worn off, and the either afterglow or hangover has subsided, I continue to perceive said deepening of our connection and for that, I am thankful.
(Again, I don’t recommend you take this stuff….)
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/pdyAsiZgvfo6jTvf7ECGiYfLw1DM9ClXDMpZqECte9us-wipcfziBZuq1HxGBmsBzx8UDoeneNuSuVIdu0mNz5wzD-AmnRjQn4z_6VDW0qxGcQZqIAEfRejc2WP4Qr3Ij328rv9E" alt=""/></figure></div>
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>
MDMA is a substance that causes many different kinds of euphoria in the person who ingests it. While there is an identity crisis surrounding this substance, which leads to its misuse, there are also very helpful precautions one can take in order to have the safest and most pleasant possible experience. While more information is needed regarding the mechanisms of action of MDMA, given it’s obvious power to increase empathy and general feelings of wellbeing, there is a growing body of research aimed at using this compound for therapeutic purposes.
Despite deaths from MDMA’s isolated use being few and far between, deaths still have occurred. Tragically, we do not know the environment these individuals were in when they succumbed to their complications. If we had known, this could have helped our understanding of the genuine risks involved in MDMA’s consumption and either advised us towards better precautions, or allowed us to relax our hysteria. Notwithstanding, it is still important to take the fact that MDMA played a role in their fatality of some, under advisement. While this substance is very much illegal in the western world, this does not stop many from experimenting with MDMA and enjoying the pleasurable sensations it offers its users. Finally, while MDMA has been shown to be statistically very safe when compared to alcohol and tobacco consumption, we at UpRiver still do not recommend that you use this substance. In the event that you choose to ignore this recommendation, we strongly urge that you employ safe practices and enjoy responsibly.
Best of luck biohacker, and as always, keep moving UpRiver.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter size-large"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="150" height="151" src="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Spencer-Stamp-e1615389773517.png" alt="" class="wp-image-1961"/></figure></div>
References: [1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merck_Group [2] <a href="https://d14rmgtrwzf5a.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/1920-the-neurobiology-of-ecstasy-mdma.pdf">https://d14rmgtrwzf5a.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/1920-the-neurobiology-of-ecstasy-mdma.pdf</a> [3] ibid [4] <a href="https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/mdma-ecstasy-abuse/what-are-mdmas-effects-on-brain">https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/mdma-ecstasy-abuse/what-are-mdmas-effects-on-brain</a> [5] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jEAr7ThsYew [6] https://drugpolicy.org/drug-facts/how-many-people-use-mdma [7] https://www.dea.gov/drug-scheduling [8] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MDMA#Media_attention_and_scheduling [9] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MDMA#Media_attention_and_scheduling [10] https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23001138/ [11] https://www.drugwise.org.uk/why-do-people-die-after-taking-ecstasy [12] https://www.healthline.com/health-news/how-you-can-die-from-caffeine [13] <a href="https://thedea.org/mdma-risks-science-and-statistics-technical-faq/mdma-molly-ecstasy-use-and-death-rate-statistics/">https://thedea.org/mdma-risks-science-and-statistics-technical-faq/mdma-molly-ecstasy-use-and-death-rate-statistics/</a> [14] <a href="https://www.clinicaltrialsarena.com/comment/mdma-ptsd-treatment/">https://www.clinicaltrialsarena.com/comment/mdma-ptsd-treatment/</a>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
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<title>7. The Truth Behind Cannabis</title>
<link>https://projectupriver.com/cannabis/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=cannabis</link>
<comments>https://projectupriver.com/cannabis/#respond</comments>
<dc:creator><![CDATA[UpRiverGreg]]></dc:creator>
<pubDate>Wed, 14 Apr 2021 22:23:28 +0000</pubDate>
<category><![CDATA[Drugs]]></category>
<guid isPermaLink="false">https://projectupriver.com/?p=2463</guid>
<description><![CDATA[TL;DR: Cannabis is a plant containing the psychoactive compound, THC. When smoked or consumed it leads to feelings of euphoria by blocking cannabinoid receptors in the brain. Cannabis is generally safe, although usage can cause bad trips, dependence and even increased risk of schizophrenia.]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div id="bsf_rt_marker">
TL;DR: Cannabis is a plant containing the psychoactive compound, THC. When smoked or consumed it leads to feelings of euphoria by blocking cannabinoid receptors in the brain. Cannabis is generally safe, although usage can cause bad trips, dependence and even increased risk of schizophrenia.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Intro</h2>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/H2UrZTAzcY2tpeSrBDbPp5LyRyrbBOiA04jQfH_QToGWQSIk08e0ril8ycD18-8LHUKBA65X4W3lBN6cJ5EPpERH8ZBI1tUjXsHntbmuslYFcDVl42zwQhoaTsXOZvjgbDw1udOP" alt=""/></figure></div>
Weed, pot, grass, mary jane, kush. It’s the notorious plant that goes by many names: cannabis. 
It can be found pretty much everywhere and anywhere. Slip out the back door at pretty much any event and you’re bound to run into a huddle of people, stealthy passing a joint between themselves. Dig a little into a college student’s closet and you’re bound to uncover a few mason jars neatly labeled “Tangerine Dream” or “Afghan Kush”.
Some call it God’s gift to man, others say it causes reefer madness, some just say it’s a great way to relax after a long day of work. Join us, as we delve into cannabis.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What is Cannabis?</h2>
Cannabis is a green, stalky plant that can be found growing natively in many parts of the world, easily identified by its distinctive leaf shape. The flowers of the cannabis plant naturally produce a psychoactive compound known as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). When consumed, THC can act as a depressant, stimulant and even a hallucinogen (read more about drug classifications in our intro to drugs <a href="https://projectupriver.com/1-what-are-drugs/">here</a>).
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/IQeYbqMUc2VbC4Ud47bgR081keO0BhLcxGHgu9mOYvWJzHyT5AFeRTSgXrm-LKKCX4fzE0NwyzMVOT9TpVwGFVRyAWu8ktdT4O4aBqYiRemj0BMHsKMLgjXUe8CDL0naRT4J5PJS" alt=""/></figure></div>
The most common way to consume cannabis is through the smoking of the dried buds. This can be done using a rolled cigarette, often referred to as a joint, a pipe, or a water pipe, often referred to as a bong. Alternative consumption methods include vaporizing the dried buds, consuming oils infused with THC, or consuming food with cannabis cooked into it, often referred to as edibles.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/qOsVV6SedHJGa1XDF7PPonMd_r8JQ-Cf_9IsWrI0WOS1NwaALnvrjO25v9Jti58JtoOX0YHsq54gKxEsSu6yZKUhPMlFPyCLu8mb8gO5r9pHN1EClfVgJWu3RakbgqMxNvx_mgfX" alt=""/></figure></div>
Cannabis usage has been around as long as recorded history, with evidence of the burning of it dating back to 3500 BC. Although, at the time of writing this article, cannabis is starting to become legalized in more and more parts of the world, it is still widely regarded as the most popular “illegal” drug in the world, with an estimated 2.7 to 4.9% of the global population using the drug in 2013 [1]. That’s well over 100 million users worldwide!
Cannabis is enjoyed broadly both by recreational and medicinal users. Recreational users usually take it for feelings of relaxation, euphoria, reduced stress and general wellbeing. Medicinally it is used to manage pain, reduce nausea, improve appetite, manage anxiety and assist with insomnia.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">How does THC work?</h2>
Spread rather pervasively throughout the brain is what is known as the endocannabinoid (EC) system. The EC system essentially works as a feedback system for your neurons, using cannabinoids as a messenger to confirm that the neuron has fired as intended [2]. This can be a little tough to wrap your head around so we’ve provided a brief, step-by-step overview of the process below:
<ol class="wp-block-list"><li>A neuron wants to activate, so it sends a neurotransmitter from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron</li><li>The postsynaptic neuron receives the neurotransmitter in one of its receptors and then activates accordingly</li><li>The postsynaptic neuron then sends a cannabinoid back to the presynaptic neuron</li><li>The presynaptic neuron receives the cannabinoid in one of it’s cannabinoid receptors, which essentially tells it “I’ve fired as instructed, stop sending me neurotransmitters”</li></ol>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/IJiBIMJNosBHOAnga_o_wGpjbpstK3NbJMU_MDbKZYP8pM2NGl4RpMEcqSYrjGVPpPqn5Qn451BvcvpcHABOKCWxdN1sBu3S8UVdG5sSshIEndvfclLuBe2Ua6b1f_1LyfP5Nwvf" alt=""/></figure></div>
Your brain’s cannabinoid messenger of choice is known as anandamide. As you can see from the image below, anandamide and THC share a very similar chemical structure, so much so that your EC system is not able to tell the difference between them. When your brain gets flooded with THC it begins to bind to the available cannabinoid receptors [2]. This makes your presynaptic neuron think that it’s postsynaptic counterpart has activated, when in reality it has not — a metaphorical “wire crossing”. As you can probably imagine, this is a very confusing state for your brain to be in, as it now has no idea which neurons have actually fired and which have not, leading to altered functioning across the board.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/2hFzpo-Gbcc5HA2aM6Y98BwBfgjtWmPXt1FqSCxCZivgPKooPQOBJO2ZNZp3GdSNzVB0icq8j4jlJvZEAxkBL9rZT0T5Nu5nAlU6S0GfE2S6mZOnbDqw-ctw7_7C7asRLrBZoB_3" alt=""/></figure></div>
Unfortunately, due to cannabis still being illegal in most areas of the world, the functioning of THC beyond this is still not well understood. In short, THC disrupts your brain’s ability to know how it is functioning, leading to altered mood and perception and at higher doses even hallucinations and derealization. One could potentially view THC as temporarily “blinding” your brain; it is still able to function normally, it just can’t “see” the results of it’s functioning, which makes it harder for it to know how to function going forward.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Effects of Cannabis</h2>
There are two main effects of consuming cannabis recreationally: a mental high and a body high. Mental highs are often more associated with consuming the sativa types of cannabis, whereas body highs are more associated with indica types of cannabis. Keep in mind however that each type of high is not exclusive to each type of weed. It’s highly possible that you may experience body high symptoms after consuming sativa and vice versa.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/nasVOH-BGMXpYbpHV_ozZfaWR0LSwtENB9R2jb3uRoJBzReONaivVupiv4aMCMClAE0FCE647OsAdyOKWDnp6Xttr6NaoNdrtVD_9SHaETTE25TYF_y87_aHIxg-qXZq_TIYPQR2" alt=""/></figure></div>
A mental high is typically marked by feelings of euphoria. Senses are enhanced, making music sound better, colours appear more vivid and food more enjoyable. Time may seem to go by either faster or more slowly. The user typically feels in good spirits and is likely to laugh very easily. Creativity is often enhanced, as users may find themselves thinking less rigidly and more fluidly.  Appetite is also usually increased, leading to a strong urge to snack, lovingly referred to as “the munchies”. Vivid closed eye hallucinations may also be experienced at higher doses.
A body high is marked by strong feelings of physical relaxation. The user feels extremely comfortable, often so much so that they find it not worth the effort to move, referred to as being “couch locked”. Aches and pains in the body are often reduced or completely eliminated. One may feel as if they are melting or sinking into whatever they are sitting on. Sometimes, a slight buzzing feeling may also be experienced in the head or teeth. When taking higher doses, many users might find that the relaxation effect can put them to sleep.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/Q3kb8Zsvf40hKY6fX6fSkMtn2JUXWP86C9vjFO7Ock9YBR4m7NGEvWInOxcXBFIDpA1Ojis7eT0zmIWw3H9lR90h6WeVqwqPNPhlmysUDvCd8w08KbpUQ0CUo8skAemUI0xBxhoU" alt=""/></figure></div>
The experience, however, is not positive for everyone. Many people experience intense anxiety and panic when high on weed. This is especially common at higher doses or with inexperienced users. At very high doses, acute psychosis may even be experienced, symptoms of which include hallucinations, delusions and a loss of personal identity [3].
Cannabis has also been shown to have some quite powerful medicinal benefits, although research in this area is limited due to it still being an illegal substance in most areas of the world. Early evidence suggests that cannabis can be quite powerful in reducing chronic pain, control nausea and vomiting, as well as to relax muscle spasticity (tight or stiff muscles) [4]. As such research is being performed on potentially using cannabis to treat the following ailments: 
<ul class="wp-block-list"><li>Alzheimer’s disease</li><li>Appetite loss</li><li>Cancer</li><li>Crohn’s disease</li><li>Diseases affecting the immune system like HIV/AIDS or Multiple Sclerosis (MS)</li><li>Eating disorders such as anorexia</li><li>Epilepsy</li><li>Glaucoma</li><li>Mental health conditions like schizophrenia and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)</li><li>Multiple sclerosis</li><li>Muscle spasms</li><li>Nausea</li><li>Pain</li><li>Seizures</li><li>Wasting syndrome (cachexia)</li></ul>
 
After smoking cannabis, effects begin to be experienced almost instantly, due to how fast it can enter your bloodstream from your lungs. Effects peak usually at around 30 minutes and wear off in 1 to 3 hours. When consuming cannabis orally, through an edible or drink, effects usually take much longer to begin to kick in, usually after about 30 minutes to an hour [3]. Because of this delayed response, many users make the mistake of redosing because they don’t think they took enough, often leading to them becoming way too high in the end. When taking edibles you should always wait several hours before redosing to ensure that this doesn’t happen to you.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Health Concerns with Cannabis</h2>
Overall, cannabis is on the safer side when it comes to drugs, however, that is not to say it is entirely safe. Below are some common health concerns involved with cannabis:
Smoking
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/x-jJBLDb7POlGrFxr0mZzSo6CU0-I4vMLNK3U-gT1qmjO-ZYj1cOq619FAuCRxqpiE2soUtC6teLfllQVEf-bOQDwNyPghPe3zBq8S9ytixTgvWQb1FOf1I6zzTWQiRZZTZyHAyt" alt=""/></figure></div>
Inhaling smoke in your lungs is bad for you. Period. We won’t go into too much detail here, but smoke from cannabis has been shown to contain many of the same harmful toxins, irritants and carcinogens as tobacco smoke. Read more on tobacco <a href="https://projectupriver.com/are-nicotine-and-tobacco-unhealthy/" data-type="URL" data-id="https://projectupriver.com/are-nicotine-and-tobacco-unhealthy/">here</a> [5]. Even worse, cannabis smokers usually hold the smoke in their lungs longer than tobacco smokers, leading to a longer exposure to the harmful smoke. Long term cannabis smoking can cause acute bronchitis and increased risks for lung infection [5].
Thankfully, these issues can be sidestepped by usings non-smoking forms of cannabis, such as edibles or drinks. For the sake of your lungs it is recommended to take these instead of smoking, if you decide to use cannabis. 
Bad Trip
It is generally accepted that it is not possible to overdose on cannabis, at least in a conventional sense. The CDC does not attribute any deaths to cannabis usage [6]. For that reason, many consider the usage of cannabis to be quite safe.
With that being said, it is still very easy to have a bad time using cannabis, like a reaaaaally bad time. As mentioned above, cannabis can cause intense anxiety, panic attacks, paranoia, hallucinations and derealization. All in all, many users start really freaking out after getting too high. A quick google search brings up countless stories of people calling 911 after getting too high, for fear for their health. 
While you won’t die from smoking weed, you can certainly get to feeling like you’re dying. From a perception standpoint, in the moment, there really isn’t that much a difference between those two, so proceed with caution. 
Habit Forming/Dependence
There is a lot of debate over whether weed can really be said to be addictive. Most users seem to have no problem quitting cannabis at any time after moderate usage. However, with more regular and extended usage, cannabis can be habit forming, and withdrawal symptoms can be experienced when stopping usage. 
Again, data is limited due to its legal status, but it is estimated that about 30% of people who use cannabis develop some sort of usage disorder [7], where they experience some sort of withdrawal symptom when stopping usage. Symptoms most reported are decreased appetite, cravings, restlessness, and various forms of physical discomfort that peak within the first week after quitting and last up to 2 weeks. This is caused by the brain adapting to the large amount of THC regularly present in the brain by reducing production of and sensitivity to it’s own EC neurotransmitters [7].
People who use cannabis before the age of 18 have been found to be about 4 to 7 times as likely to develop a usage disorder [7].  As such, younger people should be more careful using cannabis. A general rule of thumb is that cannabis usage should be extremely limited before the age of 25, as that is when the brain is said to be fully developed.
Schizophrenia
Cannabis usage has been correlated to increased occurrences of schizophrenia, although again, due to the legal status, research is limited. The most recent data [8] seems to suggest that weed is likely to bring out schizophrenia in those with a genetic predisposition to it. There is little to suggest that it may cause schizophrenia in those who aren’t genetically predisposed.
Men who are predisposed to schizophrenia usually tend to show symptoms in their late teens and early twenties, whereas women show symptoms in their late twenties and early thirties. The earlier marijuana usage starts, the more strongly it seems to be linked to schizophrenia [9]. This provides even stronger backing to the rule of thumb saying that you should limit weed use prior to the age of 25.
If you are aware that you have the genes that predispose you to schizophrenia, or if one of your blood relatives has been diagnosed with schizophrenia, you should probably err on the side of caution and stay away from weed. 
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>
Cannabis is a plant that can be found growing in many areas of the world. Its flowering buds produce a psychoactive compound known as THC. When smoked or consumed, THC blocks cannabinoid receptors in your brain, essentially “blinding” it. This usually causes symptoms of euphoria and relaxation, although in some cases it can cause anxiety, panic and hallucinations. Cannabis also has promising medicinal applications, although research is limited due to its current legal status.
In general cannabis is quite a safe drug, as no overdoses have been reported on it and it is not very addictive. However, it can lead to bad trips and even cause dependence with extended usage. It has also been shown to cause schizophrenia in those with a genetic predisposition to it. The negative effects of cannabis are especially prevalent in those with a still developing brain, so children under 18 should not use it and those under 25 should limit usage.
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References: [1] <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)</a> [2] <a href="https://www.livescience.com/how-cannabis-high-works.html">https://www.livescience.com/how-cannabis-high-works.html</a> [3] <a href="https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/what-are-marijuana-effects">https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/what-are-marijuana-effects</a> [4] <a href="https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/medical-marijuana-faq">https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/medical-marijuana-faq</a> [5] <a href="https://www.lung.org/quit-smoking/smoking-facts/health-effects/marijuana-and-lung-health">https://www.lung.org/quit-smoking/smoking-facts/health-effects/marijuana-and-lung-health</a> [6] <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/can-you-overdose-on-marijuana">https://www.healthline.com/health/can-you-overdose-on-marijuana</a> [7] <a href="https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/marijuana-addictive">https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/marijuana-addictive</a> [8] <a href="https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/there-link-between-marijuana-use-psychiatric-disorders">https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/marijuana/there-link-between-marijuana-use-psychiatric-disorders</a> [9] <a href="https://www.webmd.com/schizophrenia/schizophrenia-marijuana-link">https://www.webmd.com/schizophrenia/schizophrenia-marijuana-link</a>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
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<title>8. Are Steroids Worth the Risk?</title>
<link>https://projectupriver.com/steroids/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=steroids</link>
<comments>https://projectupriver.com/steroids/#respond</comments>
<dc:creator><![CDATA[UpRiverSpencer]]></dc:creator>
<pubDate>Fri, 07 May 2021 22:33:00 +0000</pubDate>
<category><![CDATA[Drugs]]></category>
<guid isPermaLink="false">https://projectupriver.com/?p=2469</guid>
<description><![CDATA[TL;DR: Anabolic steroids may offer users athletic and aesthetic advantages, but the price you may pay for them may not be worth your while.]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div id="bsf_rt_marker">
<figure class="wp-block-image"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/5M0k4EX5nyMnYIiSGlgZ2HbgdeWF2pz7JHyNN_LhGm3GDBi3jZeYqDhjekoHvIzZI9AH3pXGtFMfU5eqiEyA0btDtCgw3E82nJdicScuyaEuUo-qOUGvwU9qoleq9_viyI3pJhvp" alt=""/></figure>
TL;DR: Anabolic steroids may offer users athletic and aesthetic advantages, but the price you may pay for them may not be worth your while. 
Let us just start by saying that, we are not doctors. This article is not medical advice, nor should it be treated as such. This article is purely for educational purposes. Finally, we do not condone the use of any illegal substances nor the use of any prescription drug without a say-so from your physician.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Introduction</h2>
Welcome back UpRiver, biohacker. Today’s article will be like our other articles except on STEROIDS. 
No, really, this article is talking about steroids…
Steroids are one of the most popular drugs on the planet for fitness junkies, bodybuilders, and regular people simply looking to improve their physiques. Furthermore, they’re used by actors, stuntmen, and models to achieve a look that is usually tied to their ability to make a living.
We will start by covering what steroids actually are and then offer their origin story. We will then jump into the different kinds of steroids, followed by their usage, safety, and legal status around the globe. With those covered, we will jump into a growing discussion regarding their legalization and a proponent’s hypothetical reasons for demanding their legalization and general access.
A quick couple of notes before getting started. First, let us just mention that when we make reference to steroids in this article, we are predominantly talking about exogenous steroid use. The body does technically produce its own steroids within its own walls, but this article focuses on the use of compounds or the introduction of compounds not normally found naturally in the body.
Second, there are two families of steroids. These families are known as corticosteroids and anabolic-androgenic steroids. The former kind is used primarily for people with asthma and other such respiratory conditions to acutely lower inflammation, and the latter is the family of steroids this article will be focusing on.
With that said, let’s jump right in.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What are Anabolic Steroids?</h2>
First off, the full name for these bad boys is actually anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS). Now while this is a little bit of a mouthful, allow us to break down what these three words actually mean. Anabolic in biochemical terms (check out our article on kinesiology in general <a href="https://projectupriver.com/intro-to-kinesiology/">HERE</a>) means to grow. Androgenic means masculine features, or features corresponding to a male’s anatomy; and steroids are any of a class of natural or synthetic organic compounds characterized by a molecular structure of 17 carbon atoms arranged in four rings. So, when putting these three together, we describe a kind of hormone that causes the body to not only grow in some way, but also in a man-like manner (check out our article on how to be more manly without drugs <a href="https://projectupriver.com/how-to-be-more-manly/">HERE</a>).
<figure class="wp-block-image"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/DUN7OrXutubMfWADNHsOVSYlYGijnCQ4-XIQNRtwG1Uny_a3XjcviJLM-UpvMiopfBcDiyggSZK3Hhdt2cRcPKqox9nKZgPICM1NXD0wQZUwMdpwAjwjOR_VhAFKPRJ8GHlYS35g" alt=""/></figure>
Now, technically speaking, from an endogenous perspective, hundreds of steroid compounds are manufactured in plants, animals, and fungi.[1] Similar to lipids, steroids are highly concentrated energy stores. In mammals, steroids are normally metabolized and excreted to access this energy.[2] In the body, steroids are defined as having 2 main very important biological functions:[3]
<ol class="wp-block-list"><li>As important components of cell membranes, which alter membrane fluidity; and</li><li>As signaling molecules in long chains of biochemical reactions. </li></ol>
Interestingly enough, steroids are considered highly malleable and versatile little guys, with several functions being served and easily changed by slightly manipulating some of their carbon chains. For instance, in addition to having the aforementioned 17 carbon atoms, these atoms are divided into 4 ‘chains’ — A, B, C, and D. By subtly manipulating, adding or subtracting a few carbon atoms, you can readily get cholesterol (as seen below), or by simply opening the B chain, you get what is called a secosteroid, also known as the notorious Vitamin D3.[4]
<figure class="wp-block-image"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/Mtryz2Dkq9Clb3kiMCl1A0bu2pg_8tloWuShR0XP-dOX5DjXyaD-9Ti9lyitUGt0BIesHI8j52zFm4qm8P6PESTK0g6QkMWf3FmD_zbZGLdaOaItQV0GUSpU-DOJo4G-DCtP4ekc" alt=""/></figure>
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Thus far, it can be readily seen how versatile and essential these guys are for the body, forming the building blocks of the endocrine system, and keeping us alive. But we will be now taking a look at steroids exogenously, where the Hollywood vilification of these compounds often originates.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The History of Anabolic Steroids</h2>
Despite anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS’s) having a colored past, they were originally developed by German scientists led by chemist Adolf Butenandt, as a way to treat hypogonadism, also known as testosterone deficiency.[5] Butenandt’s findings were considered so significant to the medical and global community that his work was actually awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1939. Butenandt and his team were considered to have cracked many of the codes surrounding human sex hormones, which puzzled many a scientist before them. Notwithstanding Butenandt’s initial rejection of the award due to government policy, he did eventually accept it following the conclusion of WWII.[6]
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/pwuGliTm9ujvkQLGTfbinLDEElv7w0ceiFJGU-VFwsGhSKNquH9OrPPb8dwhvbIf8PfTeH4PYx6RME4t-fE7ovs4jD83b39JV1Qwx_G3NoLMLWK6TP4rkZNex3Jgxh8HwaknJ7zV" alt=""/></figure></div>
(Adolf Butenandt pictured above)
Steroids were now seen by especially the german people for what they were: a way to increase and improve several biologically masculine traits. Aggression and strength were at the forefront of the effects. 
Come 1940, anecdotal accounts place AAS’ as important tools among the ranks of Nazi’s and for Hitler, himself.[7] The All Research Journal would describe evidence of Hitler’s usage of steroids as follows:
“Retrospectively, according to his physician, Hitler’s mental state toward the end of his life exhibits characteristics that some scientists associate with heavy steroid use: mania, acute paranoid psychoses, overly aggressive and violent behavior, depression, and suicidal ideologies.”[8]
Speaking of WWII, there are also reports of steroids being used as a restorative elixir. During the post-war healing time following much wreckage and destruction, there are reports of steroids being used on both soldiers, and concentration-camp survivors in order to help restore them to full health.[9] 
Now in 1954 something really interesting happens. The USSR began to destroy everyone in all sports related to strength and powerlifting. The american weightlifting doctor John Ziegler would eventually catch wind that the USSR were using “steroids” on their performance athletes. Upon his finding that the compounds the USSR team were using caused enlarged prostates, Ziegler went to work.[10] 
He began developing a compound that focused on the first ‘A’ in AAS – anabolic. His goal was to reduce the androgenic effects (prostate enlargement, for instance), and increase the anabolic effects. Alas, in 1958, methandrostenolone, or better known, Dianabol or D-Bol was born. 
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/4kggZ_NJtQPohZya8vk9khXy1CML0nHbXkmawELOAabrr67jORQ-jj6YiOK1CWygmfMs68YTaPu-Gj1TzA0cqcLIy-WbVrtNjsGmh8IfvyhTT3OzE_lOzJo7YuFoIDkl_k_h6UKf" alt=""/></figure></div>
Our second-to-last historical stop on the AAS Express is in Montreal, Canada, 1976. This year displayed the true firepower behind the anabolic steroid. To set the scene, it was arguably the grandest stage for physical athleticism the world had seen thus far – the modern Olympic Games. While other global competitors trained for years and years, sacrificing work and leisure to train, the German swimming team did all that but had one little secret weapon up their sleeves, anabolic steroids. (Steroids were officially banned the year prior, but the German swimming team went ahead anyway…)
How did the results turn out, you ask?
Well, of the 13 swimming gold medals, Germany won 3…
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/bJOnxL8NBnAjWMPyWRCwRHtSrkrLC_YDxJk3cS73RH-zeGUhQ_gGYDjjGJCldqGFYcssI45zdSDGn6FVHnnyMUzLDD3gDt6Fs7yUygpX5olsdMpymKoYRj2-y68YAeMzsIcBC7NM" alt=""/></figure></div>
 Oh… and another 8…
Yeah. They won 11 of the 13. On top of that, they also set 8 world records.[11]
Suffice to say, steroids work. As such, they are basically banned in every major sporting competition around the world. We will return to what position steroids hold in our society in the following sections of the article. 
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What Do Steroids Do To the Body?</h2>
As a quick prenote, do keep in mind that this topic can be explained in almost infinite intricacy and depth. In light of this we will take a middle route that probably exposes you to more than you know about steroids, but while also keeping it straight forward enough to complete novices. Onward!
In simple terms, steroids drastically increase muscular output, massively improve muscular recovery, and help one build considerable muscular volume. In a word, AAS’ mimic the function of testosterone in the body. Now, while all of these effects seem very desirable, it’s important to take a deeper look into what is happening to the body on a biochemical level for these processes to occur. 
To start off, steroids are either taken in pill form (oral) or as an injectable. While a lot of people think that pills are better (as sticking a pin in your arm seems a whole lot more nefarious), oftentimes it’s the opposite. Whereas injectables go directly into the bloodstream, highly toxic ingestibles/orals must be filtered by the liver and thus may cause more damage to the body.[12]  
That said, here’s the rundown; we’re going to get a little esoteric, boys:
An average healthy male’s testes produce 4 – 9mg of testosterone every single day (find out how to naturally boost yourself to the higher end of this spectrum <a href="https://projectupriver.com/its-hotter-to-be-cold/">HERE</a> and <a href="https://projectupriver.com/light-therapy/">HERE.</a>) However, when supplementing with synthetic T, you will massively increase these numbers. The new T will be treated as if it were your own body’s supply and attach to the androgen receptors of your cells.
Following this process, it will travel to the nucleus of the cell and attach itself to the DNA. This entire process leads to the biochemical stimulation of hundreds of genes, which control protein synthesis (the process by which protein is turned into a muscle or other building blocks for the body).[13] As a result, your muscle enjoys a high protein turnover rate (PTR), which leads to muscular growth. Essentially, a muscle protein is both broken down and used to build up the tissues of the muscle. With better protein synthesis and a higher PTR, your muscle will now be slanted significantly more toward the building component of the muscle’s function.[14] This, though, is only the tip of the iceberg.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/k1an5U4kRhrt-aQL4K_1ltLmXpTGEXxWOX8e-3L4i3ZbUEAi3Ant98APdxx8QNMxuXG_kI5jps_rtbrINYk8Rn80fkNs_UAjMIqb4tCpTwESATWwzte9VF-jWXqrKgsypAYNuB8A" alt=""/></figure></div>
Anabolic steroid use also increases the number of nuclei or myonuclei found in the muscle cells.[15] You can think of these myonuclei as the control center of each muscle. The reason this is beneficial is that it has been shown that the more nuclei you have in your muscles, the more potential those muscles have for stimulus, and thus, growth.[16] However, there’s a catch:
Each myonuclei is subject to something called a myonuclear domain (MND). Essentially what this is, is the area of a muscle that the myonuclei can command. However, as the muscle as a whole continues to grow, the myonuclei become further spaced apart.[17] This would leave more and more fiber that the nuclei could not command to grow as the area would exceed their MND, thus resulting in more muscular stagnation (plateaus). Fortunately though, as the increase in testosterone encourages the growth of more myonuclei, the muscle as a whole enjoys a one-two punch with growth in fiber and genesis of new nuclei that would otherwise leave untapped hypertrophic (growth) potential.[18]
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/oYkAnuccmt_lJPBYBCUm6z8ce4JjV-5I7cKHm3F008iAhvq-8f1oWAzMDngXFT9ewTR4nMnc5pRtr3_GnpgX9Ocfv64fHO5Jf_Q5JtHYRJmeBQ-mNPyvJXNlwrA8HRA4VBzXr5fA" alt=""/></figure></div>
In fact, the time it takes to generate new nuclei in a muscle is one of the main limiting factors for why natural athletes cannot build, say, 50lbs, of muscle in a couple of months. Conversely, with exogenous synthetic testosterone causing myonuclear addition (MNA), this is one of the biggest factors why ‘enhanced’ athletes enjoy the physiological benefits they do.[19] Interestingly, once those nuclei are in your muscles, they’re potentially there forever, even when discontinuing steroid use. One study conducted in the Journal of Physiology performed on mice subjects corroborates these findings:
“Based on in vivo and ex vivo microscopy we here propose a cellular memory mechanism residing in the muscle cells. Female mice were treated with testosterone propionate for 14 days, inducing a 66% increase in the number of myonuclei and a 77% increase in fibre cross-sectional area. Three weeks after removing the drug, fibre size was decreased to the same level as in sham-treated animals, but the number of nuclei remained elevated…”[20]
Okay okay, so you get it. Steroids are damn effective at building muscle, but you may ask how effective. Let’s turn to a very conclusive study conducted by Shalender Bhasin et al. in the highly respected New England Journal of Medicine to settle the issue:
This study was a 10-week study of 43 men, who were randomly divided in 4 groups:
<ol class="wp-block-list"><li>No steroids, no working out.</li><li>Yes steroids, no working out.</li><li>No steroids, yes working out.</li><li>Yes steroids, yes working out.</li></ol>
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The groups using steroids used 600mg of testosterone per week and here’s what the study found: 
“Among the men in the no-exercise groups, those given testosterone had greater increases than those given placebo in muscle size in their arms (mean [±SE] change in triceps area, 424±104 vs. -81±109 mm2; P<0.05) and legs (change in quadriceps area, 607±123 vs. -131±111 mm2; P<0.05) and greater increases in strength in the bench-press (9±4 vs. -1±1 kg, P<0.05) and squatting exercises (16±4 vs. 3±1 kg, P<0.05). The men assigned to testosterone and exercise had greater increases in fat-free mass (6.1±0.6 kg) and muscle size (triceps area, 501±104 mm2; quadriceps area, 1174±91 mm2) than those assigned to either no-exercise group, and greater increases in muscle strength (bench-press strength, 22±2 kg; squatting-exercise capacity, 38±4 kg) than either no-exercise group.”[21]
In other words, in 10 weeks, the group who trained with steroids had a 300%+ the gain in fat-free muscle growth when compared to the group who trained without steroids! (Recall Germany taking home 11 of the 13 gold medals…)
With the obvious evidence that steroids are effective and their molecular mechanisms out of the way, we’ll now shift over to the legality of these substances before returning to the question of safety regarding these compounds. 
Note: While there is evidence that steroids also help other processes in the body like burning body fat and increasing general metabolism, the scientific jury is still out regarding how these processes take place.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What is the Legal Status and Pervasiveness of Steroids?</h2>
Interestingly enough, at the time of writing this article, steroids are only fully illegal in 4 regions. These regions are: the UK, the USA, Canada, and Australia. In other areas such as New Zealand and Germany for example, offering and selling are illegal, but buying them and possessing them are legal.[22] 
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/k-1y--uHpYRaZDcEhvbwn7J_w8m9oNzYemJsYdcOpove8-a9NVoKOCzj6EGHjUh79ToG8Jm407x8xsDV6XNKAqDSRvajWcSt1mYx96XfACwt-Zm3urt7n4MSacTJqvWMYgWzsgPg" alt=""/></figure></div>
In the US and Canada, steroids are a Schedule III substance meaning that they have a moderate potential for abuse, but offer valuable medicinal qualities when prescribed by a doctor.
Steroid use is very popular in certain demographics. In the US, only about 0.5% of the general population say they have taken steroids.[23] However, generally, when someone does a “cycle” they continue doing so for years and years. Additionally, users often use quite a bit at one time. This is largely why the illegal American steroid market is worth $13.8 billion annually.[24] 
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">How Safe are Steroids?</h2>
There are a couple of different ways to look at this question. First, is what it does to the body as a result of direct steroid use, and the second is with respect to what issues steroids may expose the users to. First thing’s first.
In terms of the negative effect steroid use has on the body, the most obvious place to start is likely the testes. Simply put, taking synthetic testosterone shuts down your natural T production. While sometimes your natural T will come back when synthetic administration is halted, other times and for some people, it will not. In both cases, however, your testicles may, and likely will atrophy. As your body senses there is already plenty T to go around, the body’s endocrine glands signal the testes to stop function and thus they shrink in size. This unfortunately has an adverse effect on sperm production and fertility. On this topic, there is a popular misconception that atrophy happens to the penis when taking steroids, but this is actually false; if anything the opposite may prove to be true…[25]
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/v0hZ59RfPtq2j1xn03dgZmS4CsSTjqZb_YYsWaZG8F5jfGegLWgmPFFZQPXvDRlEiaUfkknPJvvLZWYU7fde0epOO8_vsAjkGB4TXKsl4Uk8KFoD9jl9CX9YYJ-UGxCqqikhDtY1" alt=""/></figure></div>
Next, in terms of what concerns may arise as a direct use of steroids, are cardiovascular health problems. The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) draws our attention to the following health risks when using steroids, many of which are cardiovascular in nature:[26]
<ul class="wp-block-list"><li>High blood pressure</li><li>Blood clots</li><li>Heart attacks</li><li>Stroke </li><li>Artery damage</li></ul>
They go on to say:
“Steroid use has been associated with high blood pressure; decreased function of the heart’s ventricles; and cardiovascular diseases such as heart attacks, artery damage, and strokes, even in athletes younger than 30.”[27]
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/N9STRbK89e04ZtnGpXPsiRROL2IEH9L8F_EAC4x-uFs_bTCXy-EhUzjtUoDBaybMuCqsKot99OwIh3xzfwXCZJs6QtO56LwDjPjYEY-WZmOjmOpCcTIxx81cRDATZ4kNEuZdlonI" alt=""/></figure></div>
The next big issue is liver damage. Again the National Institute on Drug Abuse has this to say regarding liver issues:
Steroid misuse has been associated with liver damage, tumors, and a rare condition called peliosis hepatis, in which blood-filled cysts form in the liver. The cysts can rupture, causing internal bleeding and even death in rare cases.[28]
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/1VvBhcn-GwkzbxQVq-7chak26zu1WTWkYFseTwo4jZYpBm_FJ2LqV57wilu_ZKCSLylKBUbHlstlgdc_uKtlpHNEate1CN90AtBAZjp6Md6x2uurXPbDpVKajpgWqSes5vApALov" alt=""/></figure></div>
As mentioned above, there are two different ways of looking at the steroids health question. While the first has been addressed by the issues just mentioned, the second concerns cancers predominantly. 
The issue today is that scientists are not sure how steroid use actually causes cancer. However, what they do know is that steroid use and abuse certainly leads people to states where they seem to develop it more than the general population (which is already far too high). In this sense then, we cannot put a number or a statistic on the issue of cancer concerning steroids, but we can say that steroids certainly seem to expose the user to pre-cancerous states.
Finally, in terms of safety, we have the infamous “roid rage.” The idea here is that people who take steroids are more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior when compared to people who do not take steroids. While there are some studies pointing in both directions, it is hard to say for sure that steroids are the culprit as typically steroid users abuse more compounds than just steroids, which can obviously complicate the question of aggression.[29]  The condemners will say that heightened testosterone in the body de facto makes one more aggressive; and the liberators say that it is simply magnifying the traits of an already angry human being. The reality is, we simply don’t know yet and the results are very conflicting on a clinical level.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Should People Have the Right to Steroids?</h2>
There is a growing community of men who believe that the general population should be allowed to buy and possess steroids without the legal requirement for a doctor’s prescription. The arguments largely come from two different factions, but both fight for the same conclusion: the right to use and own synthetic testosterone. 
On the one hand, we have the general libertarian argument. This argument can be extended to basically all substances and states that as a legal adult, no one, even the state, should have the right to preclude me from taking a substance. The state is not my parent and therefore should not tell me what I can and cannot put in my body, especially when it does no identifiable harm to anyone else. 
On the other hand, we have a more nuanced argument as a response to an already readily prescribed medication: birth control (EE2). This argument takes a few different points into view and thus we will now present it as a proponent of this argument ourselves.
To start, birth control is widely taken by the female public, this comes as no surprise to anyone. Birth control, though, is a steroid by definition. Moreover, the filtration plants that city water goes through do not have the sophistication to eradicate the estrogen excreted into the water system such that it does not enter the bodies of all who drink it. As a result, this has led to men over the years, ingesting more and more estrogen which, in turn, has led to estrogenic effects on the population. From acne to gynecomastia (the growing of breast tissue in men), this position takes the stance that estrogen is a pervasive issue in the health of young men in Western society.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/rHYsy6heb3Qv-clC-MNqq550-IHhea7ImGoVTOpcdExX4xTlB6HVvMTL-kMPIPpp9jaYkzoe9puq_KpNJCumatWKd8n0obQ1XXS6Mwf5qjLtI-PMRqlMBM9MhzcWDk2B-erDPtTm" alt=""/></figure></div>
(EE2’s are estrogen medications.)
In addition, proponents of this view raise the question of inequality when it comes to the difficulty for men to get their predominant sex hormone, testosterone, prescribed to them when estrogen is prescribed quite readily to women. Furthermore, the dangers involved in women taking exogenous estrogen is an equally long laundry list to the ones associated with men taking exogenous testosterone. An interesting point.
This article is not meant to convince you one way or another, but with this said, there is clearly a need for discussion on the topic. We highly encourage you to talk to us on our <a href="https://projectupriver.com/forums/topic/should-men-have-access-to-exogenous-testosterone/">forum thread</a> dedicated to this.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/Ui0oBVhi_zqNFZCT8d5TzabnqviOVLYoVhJD5YFUAKRqZ-ma04H5Cr0QQPO6nNI4s5oE101F7fs_Gkr2bmCy4jP2SmFDWkZLZZFVtjGjH2dv7FT1-9LJ2OZXHu4FW9ub8Z-0RInA" alt=""/></figure></div>
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>
Anabolic androgenic steroids are predominantly taken to increase the usage, growth, and repair of muscle fibers. We saw that steroids really offer the user a two-pronged benefit for muscle growth. This included both the genesis of new myonuclei plus the surface area they could operate within; and leveraging protein synthesis to improve the muscle’s protein turnover rate. The indefatigable German Olympic Swimming Team of 1976 along with many other conclusive studies offered direct evidence of synthetic testosterone’s ability to bolster an athlete’s results significantly. Notwithstanding though, we saw how steroids come with real health risks even for otherwise young and healthy people that may make taking these substances not worth your while.
While we did leave some topics like acne development and gynecomastia – which are  classically associated with steroids – for next time, we did touch on many other interesting findings. Among these are, how the penis may actually grow from steroid use, while the testes may shrink; some advantages to taking steroids may persist long after ceasing from their use; and ‘roid rage’ may be more of a myth than once thought. Additionally, we hope we left you with an interesting new spin on an argument surrounding why steroids may be beneficial for men to have access to if taken responsibly. With myths busted and science introduced, we trust that your knowledge base on steroids has broadened and that you take a serious look at the risks before jumping into use of these drugs.
Best of luck, biohacker, and keep moving Upriver.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Spencer-Stamp-e1615389773517.png" alt="This image has an empty alt attribute; its file name is Spencer-Stamp-e1615389773517.png"/></figure></div>
References: [1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steroid [2]Ibid. [3]Ibid. [4]https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09513590601045629 [5] <a href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/bchm2.1935.237.1-3.89/html">https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/bchm2.1935.237.1-3.89/html</a> (The original study presented here in his native German.) [6]https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1939/butenandt/biographical/ [7]https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09523360500143406?journalCode=fhsp20 [8]https://www.allresearchjournal.com/archives/2015/vol1issue4/PartE/49.1-609.pdf [9]https://www.si.com/more-sports/2008/03/11/steroid-timeline#:~:text=1935%20German%20scientists%2C%20led%20by,treat%20hypogonadism%20%2D%2D%20testosterone%20deficiency.[10]Ibid. [11]Ibid. [12]https://www.webmd.com/arthritis/steroid-injections#:~:text=Local%20steroid%20injections%20are%20less,could%20have%20stronger%20side%20effects. [13]https://www.molbiolcell.org/doi/full/10.1091/mbc.10.10.3113 [14]https://journals.lww.com/co-clinicalnutrition/Abstract/2009/01000/Maximizing_muscle_protein_anabolism__the_role_of.12.aspx [15]https://insights.ovid.com/acta-physiologica-scandinavica/acpsca/2000/01/001/adaptation-human-skeletal-muscle-training-anabolic/1/00000191 [16]https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2930527/ [17]http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/web/paper/12216987/myonuclear-domain-size-varies-along-the-lengths-of-maturing-skeletal-muscle-fibers [18]https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1113/jphysiol.2013.264457 [19]Ibid. [20]https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3892473/ [21]https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/nejm199607043350101 [22]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergogenic_use_of_anabolic_steroids#Prevalence_and_user_profiles [23]https://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/pubs/brochures/steroids/professionals/#:~:text=The%20Substance%20Abuse%20and%20Mental,they%20had%20used%20anabolic%20steroids. [24]https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-steroids-market-corticosteroids-segment-to-reach-value-of-us-8-6-bn-by-2025-end-qy-research-inc–853616656.html [25]https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16813932/ [26]https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/research-reports/steroids-other-appearance-performance-enhancing-drugs-apeds/what-are-side-effects-anabolic-steroid-misuse [27]Ibid. [28]Ibid. [29]https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2612649/
</div>]]></content:encoded>
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<title>9. What Are the Best Nootropics?</title>
<link>https://projectupriver.com/9-what-are-the-best-nootropics/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=9-what-are-the-best-nootropics</link>
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<dc:creator><![CDATA[UpRiverMatt]]></dc:creator>
<pubDate>Tue, 11 May 2021 15:10:00 +0000</pubDate>
<category><![CDATA[Drugs]]></category>
<category><![CDATA[Uncategorized]]></category>
<guid isPermaLink="false">https://projectupriver.com/?p=2917</guid>
<description><![CDATA[TL;DR: Smart drugs work, they just won't make you a genius. Categories from safest to least safe include nutritional-based, adaptogens, stimulants, and designer drugs. Many designer drugs are not well understood yet. Nootropics may improve energy levels and mood, and/or memory and learning rate.]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div id="bsf_rt_marker">
TL;DR: Smart drugs work, they just won’t make you a genius. Categories from safest to least safe include nutritional-based, adaptogens, stimulants, and designer drugs. Many designer drugs are not well understood yet. Nootropics may improve energy levels and mood, and/or memory and learning rate.
Let us just start by saying that, we are not doctors. This article is not medical advice, nor should it be treated as such. This article is purely for educational purposes. Finally, we do not condone the use of any illegal substances nor the use of any prescription drug without a say-so from your physician.
<figure class="wp-block-table is-style-stripes"><table><thead><tr><th class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Nutrient-Based</th><th class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Adaptogens</th><th class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Stimulants</th><th class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Designer</th></tr></thead><tbody><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">B Vitamins</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Ashwagandha</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Caffeine</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Modafinil</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Omega-3 (DHA)</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Rhodiola</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Microdosing Psychedelics</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Piracetam</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Medium Chain Triglycerides</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Bacopa Monnieri</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Choline</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">L-Theanine</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Ginkgo Biloba</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Noopept</td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Creatine</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Lion’s Mane</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"></td></tr><tr><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center">Acetyl-L Carnitine</td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"></td><td class="has-text-align-center" data-align="center"></td></tr></tbody></table></figure>
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Introduction</h2>
Back and forth, back and forth, you dispassionately mop the floors of a University you’d never hope to attend. Being a common janitor, you feel doomed to remain lower class the rest of your days. You’ve always felt you could do more, but who are you kidding, really? Maybe you won a chess game or two back in middle school, but you weren’t no M.I.T. kid, that’s for sure. 
As you mop the last leg of the empty, dimly-lit hallway, you spot one of those highbrow math problems the professors leave on the chalkboard to find which students will brown nose them that week. As you’re looking at this particularly exotic problem, all of a sudden the light of genius sparks in your mind, the symbols speak to you, and a flood of epiphanies flow forth through the chalk piece you swiped as you finish off the problem in a matter of seconds. 
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/71AM1Hx23fwJ4iXQoD6eilvMZiuxejPbSTegzs0Nuq1uNmd5-fV-NIg7zPr1LOjx2AdEsMsGCr9XO-n2RGVJpYnqwXZhwl5pXg22TPOWvrl1xuaPL7XVWK_BDcsV4-nvw7Txh80Y" alt="" width="813" height="448"/></figure></div>
[a]
Is it the modafinil you took this morning, or are you starring in Good Will Hunting? 
Neither. 
You realize you’ve been daydreaming, the floor still needs mopping, and you’re still not a genius. 
The genius archetype is ancient, and as our society speeds up it seems to collect at the forefront of our attention. Limitless, Lucy, and even classic books like Flowers for Algernon orbit the question of whether there is some higher capacity for intelligence somewhere in there. 
Is there some way to expand and unlock a deeper potential, or is it mostly limited to our day dreams? Is there a middle ground that will give average joes like you and me enough of an edge to make a difference day to day?
The nascent 2 billion dollar nootropic industry seems to think so [2]. 
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What Are Nootropics?</h2>
Nootropics are drugs or nutrients that increase mental performance in healthy individuals. The idea with nootropics is actually to boost an already fully functional mind to a higher level of intelligence. People use nootropics to gain an edge in the workplace, for socializing, and sometimes because it just feels good to be a little sharper.
Categories of mental performance include attention, language, learning, memory, and perception. Nootropics may affect any of these capabilities. In addition, some nootropics improve mood, and increase resilience to stress, which seems related to having more energy or motivation. However they work, they produce a higher level of performance for an individual in some way. 
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/GEKPNlWr8YHqMqXo979lb9B25ltSRt4eKav7rxz8OegDVQ3iRip3mqsb0kZmTOmvhtuiCJsjdtUThN7QpW9PZSrO615L_k5jFPYUy7g2sZ_a3qYA1vai_aooOF0scFSl5_u9hQqG" alt="" width="827" height="414"/></figure></div>
[b]
Nootropics increase working memory, reaction times, alertness, energy and stamina, and some even increase general intelligence. However, if you’re hoping to be Bradley Cooper in Limitless, you’ll probably have to wait a while.
The four categories of nootropics below are nutrient-based, adaptogens, stimulants, and designer drugs.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Risks of Nootropics</h2>
Besides making your competition jealous, or being labelled a cheater by <a href="http://www.ft.com/content/0ac52ea2-fd4e-11e4-9e96-00144feabdc0">Duke University</a>, what risks should one be aware of?
First off, there are many types of nootropics, and some come with more downsides than others. Some cause addiction, others stimulate you and leave you with a crash, some might harm your body or brain, and others just stop working. Some appear to come with little to no downside at all.
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter size-large"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="312" height="184" src="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-1.png" alt="" class="wp-image-2927" srcset="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-1.png 312w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-1-300x177.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 312px) 100vw, 312px" /></figure></div>
While there are nootropics that reach back to antiquity, chemists are also coming out with newly minted synthetic nootropics every year. Nootropics is a continually evolving field. The newer and less known, the more risk we take in using them.
For this reason, we have listed the below drugs in order of mildest, most natural, and safest down to the more powerful, synthetic, and less well known. Typical doses are listed as well as potential long term downsides of using the nootropic.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Best Nootropics</h2>
Everyone has different brain chemistry and preference when it comes to nootropics. Some people like the stimulation of caffeine, others prefer the soothing and creative effects of L-theanine. The four categories represent drugs with different safety tolerances and types of effects.
Nutrient-based nootropics are usually the safest, adaptogens seem good for stress and boosting energy though not to be used every day most likely. Stimulants are stronger typically, and tolerance and addiction may develop. Designer drugs are an emerging area, and aren’t understood well yet, but show a lot of promise.
Note: If you’re consuming foods or junk that mess with your biochemistry, it would be more important to remove those first. Read about our top no-no’s in terms of diet and chemical exposure here.
Note: Before taking supplements, read our recommendations on choosing safe ones <a href="https://projectupriver.com/choosing-the-right-supplements/">here</a>.
<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Nutrient-Based Nootropics</h3>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/TEM3-cUH9CJIt1Ik1Yr7i8OPQSzeWRyp1p8cBbJPoPZg_yLAnP5_py2eltiB1VNT_vs0Itch-SAGtf0BOwA8thfV5S4qplJ5EoUOhyBaplH4Df5SW314Vkk4JntqbTjsE7zn6G37" alt="" width="826" height="551"/></figure></div>
[c]
Nutrient based nootropics are the best foundation upon which to build a smarter mind. All other nootropics will rely to some degree on your nutritional status. Without a good diet, many of these nootropics will be much less effective. See our articles on <a href="https://projectupriver.com/category/nutrition/">nutrition</a> to brush up.
Once you’ve established a good basic diet, try some of the nutrient-based brain boosters below.
<ol class="wp-block-list"><li>B-Vitamins</li></ol>
<figure class="wp-block-image"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/hXhl_qJfE0dy98klb5YKp9oNue-RuiS75luZGPD1OZu7wMI4UR-fMjLoq0BGtjnj6jK9ZWVOREBuzzJTW7OEOHRvZ6TTCz6JD9M51RxQY2IutwbICx5iVivE07dzV9ZyAyWTfcJ4" alt=""/></figure>
[h]
B vitamins play crucial roles in cognition, helping break down neurodegenerative compounds like homocysteine, and are directly involved in the KREBS cycle, which help mitochondria make energy.
When choosing B vitamins, look for the methylated versions or you may just pee most of it out. Do your research and choose a high-quality brand. It’s not worth penny pinching on this one.
In addition, B vitamins provide precursors to other nootropics like Choline, discussed below. Choline works by increasing acetylcholine production in the brain, which requires B1 and B5 to be made. Some find choline doesn’t work as a nootropic until B vitamins are supplemented or consumed in the diet in enough quantity. [9]
Like omega-3s discussed next, B vitamins’ ability to enhance cognition may be more related to filling deficiencies than improving an already well nourished brain. 
Good For: -Overall brain health -Protection from neurodegenerative diseases -Brain and body energy
Downsides: -May keep you awake if taken late in the day -Must be taken with food if using a supplement
Recommended Daily Intakes: -B1: 1mg -B2: 1mg -B3: 16mg -B5: 5mg -B6: 1 mg -B9: 0.400 mg -B12: 2 micrograms
A half or quarter ounce of grass fed beef liver has high levels of B and other vitamins, and some consume it raw, even swallowing small amounts whole like a pill.
Note: supplements may often contain up to 100x the above RDIs safely, and may be more effective at high doses. Seeing as B vitamins are water soluble, it’s hard to consume too much to really be harmed. You’ll just be peeing your hard earned $ down the drain, especially if you use non-methylated B vitamins.
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="2" id="omega3"><li>Omega-3 (DHA)</li></ol>
<figure class="wp-block-image"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/04PtJASovgFazOzt6JEamxW8vXGdECFZtZBAqoQU5ws-1ti-5qmzVPFYJHparPoW7hX9E9G2KY8hIJ_etVvJEz5zQ3iJnQio8Xd6s6X9aqQImLavrlZwwMwIRGOCwxyX0srLkmKv" alt=""/></figure>
[i]
Omega-3s are a type of fat we need to eat to survive, and are especially important for our cell membranes and proper brain functioning. It shows promise in improving cognitive functioning in adults, and reducing cognitive decline in seniors. 
Of the three types: DHA, EPA, and ALA, DHA is most important for mental functioning, and makes up to 8% of total brain weight. DHA has the ability to increase levels of BDNF – a brain growth hormone – in the brain, and taking it as a supplement is linked to improved thinking, memory, and reaction times for those with low DHA intake. It appears that lack of DHA causes cognitive impairment more than including it increases cognitive performance. [8] Still, many are deficient so make sure you’re not one of them.
ALA, the omega-3 form found in plant foods actually has no important impact on omega-3 levels in the body, unfortunately; our bodies aren’t able to convert it well. 
Good for: -Overall brain health -Protection from neurodegenerative diseases
Downsides: -Taking too much can make your blood too thin (3 – 5 or more grams / day)
Typical dose: ~1g DHA daily -100 grams of salmon has 1 gram of DHA.
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="3"><li>Medium Chain Triglycerides (MCTs)</li></ol>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/QqrH_5F6uu-jFTWK2AG2bk8LIflsAq-w35MaNk2bpzyXsvzuPQYh8ELZqrhLJfy2bPlJ4aQwgpfO4sNIQMWcWNL4CDnRNWkG0wg_DnyxUeDN7sHoUYzCnAwz2WKSm2xsS8ADQ06X" alt=""/></figure></div>
[j]
These are triglycerides (fat) of medium length, and are easily broken down in our bodies for energy. This is one of the key ingredients in Bulletproof coffee. These fats are found in high amounts in certain naturally found fats like coconut oil, but can be purchased in liquid form in concentrated amounts. They nudge your body into a ketogenic state because these fats are so easy for your body to use.
Typically, your brain runs on only glucose, but it can also run partially on ketones as a hybrid. Using ketones for energy reduces oxidative stress and protects against neurodegenerative diseases. It also enhances blood flow in the brain and may provide a higher overall power output in brain cells. MCT oil supplements have specifically shown large improvements in logical memory tests and digit-symbol coding tests. [1] C8 and C10 MCT forms appear particularly effective.
Good for: -Increased mental energy -Increased mental clarity -Reduced mental aging -Giving a mental boost during prolonged fasting periods
Downsides: -Digestive upset with too much liquid supplement (start with smaller doses, and work up) -Weight gain from too much total calories for your needs
Typical dose: 5 – 70 grams (1 tbsp of coconut oil is about 7g, but pure MCT oil may be more effective because it has more C8 and C10 MCT)
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="4" id="ltheanine"><li>L-Theanine</li></ol>
<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="800" height="460" src="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/l.png" alt="" class="wp-image-2931" srcset="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/l.png 800w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/l-300x173.png 300w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/l-768x442.png 768w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px" /></figure>
[k]
L-theanine is an amino acid known to help calm the mind down and boost creativity, but does not cause drowsiness. It actually increases the amount of alpha brain waves, which help us slow down and relax to reach a calmer and more productive state. It increases GABA, dopamine and serotonin levels in the brain. 
L-theanine also works synergistically with caffeine, and both are found in tea. This makes caffeinated teas, notably green tea or matcha, a good choice as a mild nootropic.
Good for: -Calming and mood enhancement, benefits depression and anxiety -Creativity -Pairing with stimulants like caffeine (typically 1:2 ratio of caffeine:L-theanine)
Downsides: -Relatively mild
Typical dose: 50 – 200mg daily (one cup of tea contains roughly 25mg)
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="5"><li>Creatine</li></ol>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/dwXdSv3_VWdCOXeiJNGv-pLji0t5vcojHDps_s__5W-ARVKS_T60I2lKpV966VwUKCDU1r80FI42r3DtZhcAZY4eH7b9vOor0YE2usw1oiexWkvMtrNJL5NWgDdQXcn88LoJvUac" alt=""/></figure></div>
[l]
Creatine is similar in structure to many amino acids and is found mostly in our muscle cells, and 
some in our brain and other organs. It is found in most meats and other animal foods. Taking creatine powder for strength training and bodybuilding is already popular for its role in generating energy, especially for short term bursts. Read more on creatine for athletics <a href="https://projectupriver.com/the-truth-behind-muscle-building-fat-loss-supplementation/#creatine">here</a>.
Less well known is its ability to boost working memory and even general intelligence, unlike most other nootropics. [6][7] Creatine seems to just allow you to deliver more energy – to your muscle cells or your brain cells. Furthermore, creatine has over a decade of research behind it in hundreds of studies supporting its safety and efficacy. 
Good for: Mental and physical energy  Working memory Increased general intelligence
Downsides: -Water weight gain -Possible digestive, liver or kidney problems
Typical dose: 5g daily (note 1kg of red meat contains about 5g of creatine. You likely don’t need more than 5g per day, though some people take large doses)
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="6" id="acetyl-l-carnitine"><li>Acetyl L-Carnitine</li></ol>
<figure class="wp-block-image"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/rFzdE4zw-_UEPKlE6HsNGLp8FZsWkrs5Bfjclt6-2wUceAb5lmxWhYWHFWWzYpw4XLaLOq8w7hENgHbryhcmQC5rbm8S7LzFZ6QWVpoPY9UiCDG4qRzqgYWhojDOZJYmGCew3ZDf" alt=""/></figure>
[m]
Like L-theanine, L-carnitine is an amino acid. It is found mostly in animal foods and in nearly all cells in the human body helping them produce energy. Acetyl-L carnitine is a form that crosses the blood-brain barrier more easily and the acetyl group can be used to help create acetylcholine, an important neurotransmitter. Carnitine often gives us a mental and physical energy boost because it helps our mitochondria burn fat for fuel. Read more on its athletic benefits <a href="https://projectupriver.com/the-truth-behind-muscle-building-fat-loss-supplementation/#carnitine">here</a>.
Acetyl-L Carnitine supports learning, memory, attention, and mental energy. It supports levels of several neurotransmitters and exhibits neuroprotective functions as well. [10]
Good for: -Increased mental and physical energy -Improved learning and attention -General mental health
Downsides: -Digestive problems -Headaches -Trouble sleeping
Typical dose: 500 – 2500 mg daily
Those who eat meat typically consume 60 – 180mg per day. Vegans consume about 10-12mg per day. Taking more than 500 mg per day may result in some of the downsides above.
<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Adaptogen-Based Nootropics</h3>
<figure class="wp-block-image"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh6.googleusercontent.com/ZY89eept6Y34KN5oOsZy0_lhZ15BUnOvVM6WSYf4_B1cPGsaYlFgQAFhqiwpruez7IL_F5cmwr9a_4zj4YTyucWIRolrByN3K7MkjiBESKzWYgGNsLdaOys-kz2jesj6WmCowZtz" alt=""/></figure>
[d]
Adaptogens adapt the way our bodies manage stress and often come with other related benefits like a reduction in anxiety, and an increase in physical and mental endurance. They’re usually plants of some kind.
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="7" id="ashwagandha"><li>Ashwagandha</li></ol>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter size-large is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0.png" alt="" class="wp-image-2939" width="809" height="391" srcset="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0.png 724w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-300x145.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 809px) 100vw, 809px" /></figure></div>
[n]
Ashwagandha translates from Sanskrit to smell of the horse, relating to strength and the unique smell it gives off. If that doesn’t clear things up for you, it is a strong, ancient adaptogen that increases stress resilience and reduces anxiety, especially for those with psychological disorders. It may improve overall well being by reducing cortisol levels and can even lower blood sugar levels. [5] True to its name, it does appear to increase both muscle mass and strength. [11]
Ashwagandha has a high concentration of a class of hormone-acting molecules called withanolides, which may have anti-cancer properties. It also appears to increase sperm count and motility as well as produce a slight boost in testosterone. [11] Tack onto this its ability to protect the brain from free radicals and improve reaction time and memory and it seems like quite the powerhouse.
Good for: -Stress, anxiety and depression -Concentration -Energy -Protection from degenerative brain diseases, especially memory
Downsides: -Long term effects unknown -Not safe for pregnant or breastfeeding women -Potentially unsafe for those with autoimmune disorders
Typical dose: 500 mg
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="8" id="rhodiola"><li>Rhodiola</li></ol>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter size-large is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/unnamed.png" alt="" class="wp-image-2940" width="830" height="400" srcset="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/unnamed.png 512w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/unnamed-300x145.png 300w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 830px) 100vw, 830px" /></figure></div>
[o]
A root used for centuries in Russia and Scandanavian countries for anxiety, fatigue, and depression, rhodiola helps increase resilience to stress and improves well being [12]. It increases energy levels for cognition as well as physical performance and increases physical endurance. [5][12] One study in students showed an 8% higher test score than placebo groups [12]. In addition, like ashwagandha, it may help lower blood sugar levels and reduce tumour and cancer growth.
It is quite safe and side effects are rare. Taking about 25g would be harmful, however, which is 50x the recommended dose.
Good for: -Increased energy -Stress resilience -Improved sense of well being
Downsides: -Slightly stimulating, likely shouldn’t be taken before bed -Some may experience drowsiness, stomach upset, or headache
Typical dose: 500 mg, best taken on an empty stomach
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="9" id="bacopa-monnieri"><li>Bacopa Monnieri</li></ol>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter size-large is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-1-1-1024x502.png" alt="" class="wp-image-2932" width="816" height="399" srcset="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-1-1-1024x502.png 1024w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-1-1-300x147.png 300w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-1-1-768x377.png 768w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-1-1.png 1280w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 816px) 100vw, 816px" /></figure></div>
[p]
A staple medicine in traditional Ayurvedic medicine (Eastern), bacopa monnieri is used to improve memory, reduce anxiety and even treat conditions like epilepsy. It has shown in mice to improve spatial learning and memory, and to increase length of dendrites (the branches at the end of neurons). One twelve week study showed that taking 300mg of bacopa monnieri significantly improved learning rate and visual processing speed as well as memory. [13]
A class of compounds called bacosides in this plant is thought to be behind its effects. These compounds show antioxidant abilities, neutralizing free radicals that accelerate aging and lead to neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. It also may lower blood pressure and have anticancer properties like the two adaptogens above. [13]
Good for: -Learning speed -Memory -Neurodegenerative diseases
Downsides: -Not well understood side effects, not recommended for pregnant women -May interact with medications
Typical dose: 300 – 450 mg
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="10" id="ginkgo-biloba"><li>Ginkgo Biloba</li></ol>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter size-large"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="1024" height="620" src="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-2-1024x620.png" alt="" class="wp-image-2933" srcset="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-2-1024x620.png 1024w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-2-300x182.png 300w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-2-768x465.png 768w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-2-1536x929.png 1536w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-2.png 1600w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /></figure></div>
[q]
Ginkgo Biloba is a tree native to China, and is the only known survivor of an ancient order of plants. It is thought to open channels of energy flow to different organs. This may be explained by its ability to increase blood flow to these regions, which could be due to the fact that it raises nitric oxide levels (12% in one study). Likely, for this same reason, Ginkgo Biloba shows benefits for heart health, brain health, and stroke prevention. It also has been researched for any benefits related to anxiety, stress, and cognitive decline, but the results are still inconclusive. [14]
Further areas of research showing promise include ginkgo biloba’s ability to help with depression, vision, headaches, asthma, PMS, and sexual dysfunction. [14]
It contains powerful antioxidants, including flavonoids and terpenoids, which may be behind its health effects. [14]
Good for: -Increasing blood flow -Possible anxiety and stress reduction
Downsides: -Possibly interacts with medications -Nausea, headache, digestive problems in some -Allergic reaction in some
Typical dose: 200 mg throughout the day
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="11" id="lions-mane"><li>Lion’s Mane</li></ol>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter size-large"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="1024" height="469" src="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-3-1024x469.png" alt="" class="wp-image-2934" srcset="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-3-1024x469.png 1024w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-3-300x137.png 300w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-3-768x352.png 768w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-3.png 1500w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /></figure></div>
[r]
Lion’s mane is a mushroom used in Eastern dishes and as a medicine. It stimulates nerve growth factor, which is a protein that improves memory, mood, and learning, protects and helps create new brain cells, and may reduce depression symptoms. [5] It also shows promise in protecting from neurodegenerative diseases, and helps with memory impairment. It has anti-inflammatory effects that can reduce anxiety and depression symptoms. It also appears to help prevent the growth of the parasitic bacteria H. Pylori responsible for stomach ulcers.
Like with the other adaptogens, lion’s mane reduces inflammation and oxidative stress, boosts the immune system, prevents the spread of cancer, and helps manage diabetes.
Lion’s mane contains two active categories of compounds thought to be responsible for its effects: hericenones, and erinacines. 
Good for: Boosting brain cell growth, slowing neurodegenerative diseases Mild anxiety and depression Preventing several diseases
Downsides: -Rarely, allergies may occur
Typical dose: 2 grams daily
<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Stimulant-Based Nootropics</h3>
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[e]
Stimulants speed up your central nervous system and increase your focus and attention, as well as working memory. Too much stimulation can be detrimental to performance in the long run, and you’ll develop a tolerance to them with repeated daily use.
Read more on stimulants in our intro to drugs <a href="https://projectupriver.com/1-what-are-drugs/#stimulants">here</a>.
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="12"><li>Caffeine</li></ol>
<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="1024" height="442" src="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-4-1024x442.png" alt="" class="wp-image-2936" srcset="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-4-1024x442.png 1024w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-4-300x130.png 300w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-4-768x332.png 768w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-4.png 1190w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /></figure>
[s]
Caffeine is the stimulant nootropic of choice for most office workers. Widely used across the globe, it is found in the coffee and tea plant and works by making you feel less tired than you actually are. This is part of the reason why it is especially effective when you’re tired. It enhances alertness and attention, decreases reaction time, and may also improve working memory to an extent. [4] Take a deeper look in our article on caffeine here.
Good for: -Increased alertness and focus, especially when tired -Faster reaction time -Working memory -First dates
Downsides: -Addiction and dependence -Anxiety, especially at high doses -“Crashes” after effects wear off -Mold and mycotoxins in poorly processed coffee, digestive irritation
Typical dose: 50 – 200 mg daily – subject to tolerance (one cup of coffee contains about 120mg)
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="13"><li>Microdosing LSD or Psilocybin Mushrooms</li></ol>
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Reported effects of microdosing LSD or magic mushrooms [3]
Taking sub-hallucinogenic doses of hallucinogens like LSD or magic mushrooms appears to have gained popularity in silicon valley for enhanced creativity and productivity. The image above is based on a study of 278 microdosers using qualitative measurements. From this, enhanced mood, creativity, focus, energy, and confidence appear to take effect, though some people experience negative effects, most notably physical discomfort. This is still a very new area, and we do not recommend illegal or unsafe use of psychedelics.
Good for: Improved mood Increased focus Increased creativity
Downsides: Tolerance builds quickly, rarely used on a daily basis Potential for physical discomfort Legality
Typical dose:  -0.10 grams of psilocybin mushrooms -10 micrograms of LSD
<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Designer Nootropics</h3>
<img decoding="async" src="https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/acK6t6XN8zzT0T4b0QcQAxB63ZRGCxLw2vVyk46m_IuGLp71X5X621PHDGcQNLERAJ00nV2elCjnlxuwfBwV6LKZzv-vPKpqrVb6bkLEHnI0ndZqvaUTnk0I-iHjKLUIB-XyGXjj" style="width: 900px;">
[f]
Designer nootropics are made in a lab, and are created all the time. They started being created in the 60s mostly, and continue to gain popularity to this day. LSD made in 1938, modafinil made in the late 70s and popularized in the 90s, and piracetam made in 50s or 60s are some early examples. There are many dozens today that are popular, and they are often stacked with each other.
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="14"><li>Modafinil</li></ol>
<figure class="wp-block-image size-large"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="1024" height="527" src="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-5-1024x527.png" alt="" class="wp-image-2937" srcset="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-5-1024x527.png 1024w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-5-300x155.png 300w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-5-768x396.png 768w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-5-1536x791.png 1536w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-5.png 1600w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /></figure>
[t]
Modafinil is a prescription stimulant drug used as a wakefulness agent for narcolepsy and performing under sleep deprivation. It was first made in the 1970s. In healthy people, it shows ability to improve digit span memory, visual pattern recognition memory, spatial planning and reaction time. It also improves mood, increases energy, boosts focus and motivation. Basically, it’s like a heavier hitting version of caffeine. As an added bonus, it doesn’t appear that tolerance builds to its effects, as some claim to use it for years as a daily habit.
Perhaps the closest nootropic to NZT’s Limitless is Modafinil. Read more in our article on modafinil <a href="https://projectupriver.com/why-modafinil-is-the-best-of-the-study-drugs/">here</a>.
Good for: -Powerful alertness and focus -Learning and memory -Reaction time -Long term use
Downsides: -Long half life (12-15 hrs), take as early as possible to have a good sleep -May cause indigestion, headache, digestive upset, or anxiety -Loss of appetite -Some say a loss of creativity in exchange for the linear focus
Typical dose: 100 – 400 mg daily
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="15" id="piracetam"><li>Piracetam</li></ol>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter size-large"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" width="1024" height="747" src="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-6-1024x747.png" alt="" class="wp-image-2938" srcset="https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-6-1024x747.png 1024w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-6-300x219.png 300w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-6-768x560.png 768w, https://projectupriver.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/pasted-image-0-6.png 1280w" sizes="auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" /></figure></div>
[q]
First created in the 1960s to treat motion sickness, this grand-daddy of the nootropics has been used and studied as a memory and learning enhancer since 1971. It is a classic to start with when looking into the burgeoning arena of synthetic nootropics. It is a synthetic derivative of the neurotransmitter GABA, which slows neural activity, but doesn’t appear to have similar effects to GABA; it is still unclear how it really works. It appears to be more effective in the elderly and those with cognitive impairment. [15]
Its younger brother aniracetam is also widely used. Both are stimulants used for alertness, and are also used in central nervous system diseases like dementia and Alzheimer’s. They also have benefits for depression, and possibly anxiety. [15]
It appears piracetam may work by making cell membranes more fluid and able to communicate. It may also increase blood supply to the brain, and increase glucose and oxygen consumption in the brain. [15]
Good for: -Learning and memory -Alertness -Reducing depression and anxiety
Downsides: -May interact with medications
Typical dose: 1 – 5 g daily
16. Choline
<figure class="wp-block-image"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/Y5oVggnzduyNezib1zoRr_QrI40QzrmhrGzVDejUlIMSvO5B3VtEHACvUTg_OSnXi6A24D73WoeT8iNldlAHONBcVbjq5HZjSVH_C4TTwPK0GxiXzL8KgZPNIt0ZlG-zO7t1nq_0" alt=""/></figure>
Glycerylphosphorylcholine is one form of choline nootropic users take, others take direct choline supplements like choline bitartrate or choline citrate [r]
Choline is actually an essential vitamin, recently recognized as such in 1998. It is found in “brain foods” like eggs, beef, salmon, and cauliflower. It could belong in the nutrient-based nootropics above, but is so commonly stacked with piracetam and other designer nootropics that it is included here. 
Choline is required for the functioning of the liver, brain, muscles, and for cellular metabolism and energy production. Your brain uses large amounts when it creates the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, essential for attention, focus, memory, mood, thinking, and sleep – your brain can’t function at all without it.
Piracetam increases the effects of acetylcholine and aniracetam release more acetylcholine. Both seem to increase cellular demand for choline. Using racetams without enough choline may even lead to the common racetam headaches due to lack of choline. All nootropics in the racetam family work in some way by affecting acetylcholine. 
Alone, choline can enhance alertness, mental energy, memory, and recall time. Stacked with racetams, it has enhanced effects, especially on memory.
Good for: -Preventing neurodegenerative symptoms, improving impaired memory -Memory and recall time in healthy people -Mental energy -Focus and attention -Stacking with other designer nootropics
Downsides: -Too much may cause irritability, anger, anxiety/depression, confusion, fatigue and other effects
Typical dose: -RDI for choline is around 500 mg daily – each form of choline nootropic has a different % of choline by weight and a different bioavailability. For this reason, each choline nootropic will have a different recommended dose. -Ex: Citicoline is taken in approximately 1 g / day, though do not take this dose without proper research. Even citicoline comes in different forms, for example citicoline sodium
<ol class="wp-block-list" start="17" id="noopept"><li>Noopept</li></ol>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter"><img decoding="async" src="https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/FocRV0mhsfAvWjXKfQTcKZZcsni6luLlAKGF7ouz9gDPP2HlgN7CD4x061ieFrhyC3gWPhPdUj08e6841hu906VitymfnfBMiaargVpY364uo9aHkXAjnm7Yi8W6KMsNDmrFpQ5Q" alt=""/></figure></div>
[s]
Also known affectionately as N-phenylacetyl-L-prolylglycine ethyl ester, noopept has a similar effect to piracetam. It appears to have neuroprotective effects in those with cognitive impairment from oxidative stress or physical trauma [17]. In healthy people, there is not yet evidence that it improves cognitive performance. In animal studies, it shows promise in boosting BDNF, which promotes growth of new brain cells. It also shows the ability in animals to speed up memory retrieval [16].
There are claims that it is anti-inflammatory, anti-anxiety, and acts as an antioxidant. Much more research is needed to understand how effective noopept really is [18]
Good for: -Helping recover from brain injury -May improve memory -Acts in minutes
Downsides: -Not well understood or researched yet
Typical dose: 10 – 30mg
The world of designer nootropics is complex and new. For a deeper dive on them, check out the website <a href="https://nootropicsexpert.com/">Nootropics Expert</a>.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Stacking</h2>
Caffeine and L-theanine work better together than they do individually. If you drink coffee every morning, and you decide to add some L-theanine onto that, you’re “stacking” these two nootropics. Many nootropics appear to boost each other, including multiple different combinations of the above. Another common combination is piracetam and choline, known to work together to boost memory.
We recognize both the allure of stacking, and advise you to do your research before trying a combination that is new to you, especially with less well understood designer drugs and psychoactive drugs like psilocybin mushrooms.
There are also many pre-made stacks sold by companies specializing in doing the leg work for you under names like Qualia Mind or Alpha Brain.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Other Ways to Be Smarter</h2>
<div class="wp-block-image"><figure class="aligncenter is-resized"><img loading="lazy" decoding="async" src="https://lh4.googleusercontent.com/AZKlXVjvo96UePfUwWl8TMVyPVgzoionM_HIolzs43VSaq6caJg8TFXNPEcNIpy-QyOuCgs2shRXaApRfH-oJz67eolioMScQ1a7tlfz7FiyGJKumkB0778t_PD7_VrtdyYUfOT9" alt="" width="452" height="280"/></figure></div>
[g]
At UpRiver, we like to think about the bigger picture, and the fact is that when it comes to improving mentally you want to make sure your foundation is well-built before you move on to the finer details. 
A lot of the time, these nootropics work much better once you’re already in a good state to begin with. If you’re not feeling sharp and motivated, you may find they don’t really do all that much for you.
Before you delve into nootropics, we recommend you checkout our <a href="https://projectupriver.com/category/nutrition/">diet</a>, <a href="https://projectupriver.com/category/sleep/">sleep</a>, <a href="https://projectupriver.com/category/mindset/">mindset</a>, and <a href="https://projectupriver.com/category/body/">exercise</a> streams here as these will give you the best bang for your buck and hit more “upstream” in your biochemistry. After you’ve got a handle on these, trying nootropics to gain an additional edge makes sense.
Specific strategies we might recommend include <a href="https://projectupriver.com/gym-science-101/">cardio and resistance training</a> regularly, including <a href="https://projectupriver.com/nutritious-foods/">nutrient dense foods</a> in your diet, <a href="https://projectupriver.com/intro-to-meditation/">meditating</a>, trying out a ketogenic diet or <a href="https://projectupriver.com/a-deep-dive-on-the-carnivore-diet/">carnivore diet</a>, improving your <a href="https://projectupriver.com/what-is-the-microbiome/">microbiome</a>, and alternating between focused and diffuse learning.
<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>
Nootropics are any substance that improves mental performance, be it a nutrient, medicinal herb or synthetic chemical. People typically use them to be more productive or creative. Nootroipcs do work, they just won’t make you a genius. Some work by improving memory and learning, and others improve your mood and energy levels – each works differently. 
Of the 17 discussed above, some are categorized as nutrient-based, some as adaptogens, some as stimulants, and some as designer drugs. They each work differently, and may work better for different people. It is popular to “stack” multiple nootropics together to achieve even greater effects. Some nootropics are illegal, prescription, or otherwise unsafe for recreational use. Do your own research.
Start with a good foundation of diet, exercise, and sleep to grab all of the low hanging fruit in terms of mental performance before trying nootropics. 
Note: link from modafinil and caffeine article to this one
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References: [1] <a href="https://www.mdlinx.com/article/studies-show-these-2-diets-can-boost-brain-power/3ffWfCQwnpLZ51wsC2Ofv0">https://www.mdlinx.com/article/studies-show-these-2-diets-can-boost-brain-power/3ffWfCQwnpLZ51wsC2Ofv0</a>  [2] <a href="https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2020/02/19/1987135/0/en/Nootropics-Market-To-Reach-USD-5-32-Billion-By-2026-Reports-And-Data.html">https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2020/02/19/1987135/0/en/Nootropics-Market-To-Reach-USD-5-32-Billion-By-2026-Reports-And-Data.html</a>  [3] <a href="https://harmreductionjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12954-019-0308-4">https://harmreductionjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12954-019-0308-4</a>  [4]<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20182035/#:~:text=Caffeine%20facilitates%20performance%20in%20tasks,found%20improvements%20in%20reaction%20time">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20182035/#:~:text=Caffeine%20facilitates%20performance%20in%20tasks,found%20improvements%20in%20reaction%20time</a>.  [5] <a href="https://wholisticresearch.com/best-nootropics-for-mood/">https://wholisticresearch.com/best-nootropics-for-mood/</a>  [6] <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29704637/">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29704637/</a>  [7] <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/08/030813070944.htm">https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/08/030813070944.htm</a>  [8] <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/best-nootropic-brain-supplements#TOC_TITLE_HDR_2">https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/best-nootropic-brain-supplements#TOC_TITLE_HDR_2</a>  [9] <a href="https://nootropicsexpert.com/13-vitamins-essential-for-the-optimized-brain/#vitamin-e">https://nootropicsexpert.com/13-vitamins-essential-for-the-optimized-brain/#vitamin-e</a>  [10] <a href="https://www.neurohacker.com/formulation/acetyl-l-carnitine">https://www.neurohacker.com/formulation/acetyl-l-carnitine</a>  [11] <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/12-proven-ashwagandha-benefits#1.-Is-an-ancient-medicinal-herb">https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/12-proven-ashwagandha-benefits#1.-Is-an-ancient-medicinal-herb</a> [12] <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/rhodiola-rosea">https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/rhodiola-rosea</a>  [13] <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/bacopa-monnieri-benefits#TOC_TITLE_HDR_7">https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/bacopa-monnieri-benefits#TOC_TITLE_HDR_7</a>  [14] <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/ginkgo-biloba-benefits#TOC_TITLE_HDR_15">https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/ginkgo-biloba-benefits#TOC_TITLE_HDR_15</a> [15] <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/piracetam">https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/piracetam</a>  [16] <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/nootropics#TOC_TITLE_HDR_10">https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/nootropics#TOC_TITLE_HDR_10</a>  [17] https://examine.com/supplements/noopept/ [18] <a href="https://selfhacked.com/blog/benefits-experiences-noopept/">https://selfhacked.com/blog/benefits-experiences-noopept/</a>
Images [a] <a href="https://lifethroughamathematicianseyes.files.wordpress.com/2016/08/gwh-00079.jpg?w=736">https://lifethroughamathematicianseyes.files.wordpress.com/2016/08/gwh-00079.jpg?w=736</a>  [b] <a href="https://www.google.com/search?q=nootropics&rlz=1C1CHBF_enCA741CA741&prmd=svin&sxsrf=ALeKk00rjbwiEGhorpl_ykzuOsjOvpYkDw:1619559825791&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi58e7Asp_wAhWRB80KHWBcAQYQ_AUoA3oECAEQAw&biw=1920&bih=947#imgrc=1MB3n2SIIYznWM">https://www.google.com/search?q=nootropics&rlz=1C1CHBF_enCA741CA741&prmd=svin&sxsrf=ALeKk00rjbwiEGhorpl_ykzuOsjOvpYkDw:1619559825791&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi58e7Asp_wAhWRB80KHWBcAQYQ_AUoA3oECAEQAw&biw=1920&bih=947#imgrc=1MB3n2SIIYznWM</a>  [c] <a href="https://hhp-blog.s3.amazonaws.com/2021/03/GettyImages-1278940460.jpg">https://hhp-blog.s3.amazonaws.com/2021/03/GettyImages-1278940460.jpg</a>  [d] <a href="https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0175/2232/articles/blog_adaptogens_1024x.jpg?v=1524366300">https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0175/2232/articles/blog_adaptogens_1024x.jpg?v=1524366300</a>  [e] <a href="https://assets.teenvogue.com/photos/5a4a51896f6c5f43f751dd73/16:9/w_2560%2Cc_limit/1217-TV-CUAU10-01.jpg">https://assets.teenvogue.com/photos/5a4a51896f6c5f43f751dd73/16:9/w_2560%2Cc_limit/1217-TV-CUAU10-01.jpg</a>  [f] <a href="https://media-exp1.licdn.com/dms/image/C4D12AQGoohUGCIhvjA/article-cover_image-shrink_600_2000/0/1591273044838?e=1622678400&v=beta&t=U2KghQTcuwjHwM8nxx26qhENX2rczKCySv-ubYM0SI4">https://media-exp1.licdn.com/dms/image/C4D12AQGoohUGCIhvjA/article-cover_image-shrink_600_2000/0/1591273044838?e=1622678400&v=beta&t=U2KghQTcuwjHwM8nxx26qhENX2rczKCySv-ubYM0SI4</a>  [g] <a href="https://winmr.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/health-wellness.jpg">https://winmr.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/health-wellness.jpg</a>  [h] <a 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href="https://hips.hearstapps.com/hmg-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/images/young-man-preparing-his-protein-drink-royalty-free-image-618752694-1551094694.jpg?crop=1xw:0.75035xh;center,top&resize=1200:*">https://hips.hearstapps.com/hmg-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/images/young-man-preparing-his-protein-drink-royalty-free-image-618752694-1551094694.jpg?crop=1xw:0.75035xh;center,top&resize=1200:*</a>  [m] <a href="https://medium.com/@thegregjames/alcar-the-number-one-fat-loss-supplement-you-should-be-using-e7f005209d1f">https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fmedium.com%2F%40thegregjames%2Falcar-the-number-one-fat-loss-supplement-you-should-be-using-e7f005209d1f&psig=AOvVaw27zgbdvuFV8JzBv9rW2iD4&ust=1619714294562000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCOCrvYuwofACFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD</a>  [n] <a href="https://cdn-a.william-reed.com/var/wrbm_gb_food_pharma/storage/images/publications/food-beverage-nutrition/nutraingredients-usa.com/news/suppliers/ashwagandha-finds-itself-in-the-right-place-at-the-right-time/11691985-1-eng-GB/Ashwagandha-finds-itself-in-the-right-place-at-the-right-time_wrbm_large.jpg">https://cdn-a.william-reed.com/var/wrbm_gb_food_pharma/storage/images/publications/food-beverage-nutrition/nutraingredients-usa.com/news/suppliers/ashwagandha-finds-itself-in-the-right-place-at-the-right-time/11691985-1-eng-GB/Ashwagandha-finds-itself-in-the-right-place-at-the-right-time_wrbm_large.jpg</a>  [o] <a href="https://a99d9b858c7df59c454c-96c6baa7fa2a34c80f17051de799bc8e.ssl.cf1.rackcdn.com/images/supplement-rhodiola-rosea.jpg">https://a99d9b858c7df59c454c-96c6baa7fa2a34c80f17051de799bc8e.ssl.cf1.rackcdn.com/images/supplement-rhodiola-rosea.jpg</a>  [p] <a href="https://selfhacked.com/app/uploads/2016/05/BacopaMonnieri.jpeg">https://selfhacked.com/app/uploads/2016/05/BacopaMonnieri.jpeg</a>  [q] <a href="https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/ginkgo-biloba-tree.jpg">https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/ginkgo-biloba-tree.jpg</a>  [r] <a href="https://www.bulletproof.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/lions-mane-header.jpg">https://www.bulletproof.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/lions-mane-header.jpg</a>  [s] <a href="https://www.news-medical.net/news/20210216/Daily-caffeine-consumption-can-change-the-gray-matter-of-the-brain.aspx">https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.news-medical.net%2Fnews%2F20210216%2FDaily-caffeine-consumption-can-change-the-gray-matter-of-the-brain.aspx&psig=AOvVaw1fTHfK8fK85jacPhfzML-I&ust=1619720984555000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCKCqsIPJofACFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD</a>  [t] <a href="https://www.alzdiscovery.org/uploads/cognitive_vitality/Report_Modafinil.jpg">https://www.alzdiscovery.org/uploads/cognitive_vitality/Report_Modafinil.jpg</a>  [q] <a href="https://cdn11.bigcommerce.com/s-cebedmpn/images/stencil/1280x1280/products/162/2500/buy-piracetam-powder__35813.1611096035.jpg?c=2?imbypass=on">https://cdn11.bigcommerce.com/s-cebedmpn/images/stencil/1280×1280/products/162/2500/buy-piracetam-powder__35813.1611096035.jpg?c=2?imbypass=on</a>  [r] <a href="https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0060/9920/6178/files/Synthesis_of_choline_from_citicoline.png">https://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0060/9920/6178/files/Synthesis_of_choline_from_citicoline.png</a>  [s] <a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Noopept_structure.png">https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Noopept_structure.png</a>
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